The method of classical political economy is. The main stages of classical political economy. Economic doctrine W. Petty

1. In the classical political economy, the priority method of economic analysis is:

A) empirical method;

B) functional method;

C) the causal method.

2. The study of the study of classical political economy is:

A) the sphere of appeal;

B) production sector;

C) the sphere of appeal and the sphere of production at the same time.

3. According to the classical political savings salary as the income of the worker:

A) to the physiological minimum;

B) to the subsistence minimum;

C) to the maximum possible level.

4. In accordance with the classical political economy, money is:

A) artificial invention of people;

B) the most important factor economic growth;

C) Technical instrument, a thing that facilitates the exchange.

5rd by a class of the class method of analysis, theories of capital, productive work, reproduction is:

A) F. Kene;

B) A. Smith;

C) K. Marx.

6.What was the basis of the physiocratic system?

A) Primates of agriculture as the basis of society's life;

B) analysis of public reproduction and its categories;

C) Primates of the sphere of circulation.

A) nominal money theory;

B) the metal theory of money;

C) quantitative money theory.

8. In what era did the position of the "invisible hand" occurred?

A) unregulated market economy;

B) to a market economy;

C) regulated market economy.

A) F.Kene, A.Turgo, A.Smit;

B) A.Serra, U.Stafford;

C) "member, A.Montown;

D) I.pososhkov.

10.U. Petty and P. Buagilber - Rodonarchists of the theory of value, determined by:

A) labor costs (labor theory);

B) manufacturing costs (cost theory);

C) maximum utility.

11. According to F. Kene, the classification of farmers represent:

A) productive class;

B) the class of land owners;

C) Proflity class.

12. According to the teachings of F. Kene about the "clean product" the latter is created:

A) in trade;

B) in agricultural production;

C) in industry.

A) A.Turgo;

B) A.Smit;

C) F.Kene.

14. How was the originally called (at the beginning of the 17th century) economic theory?

A) economics;

B) science of wealth;

C) political economy;

D) the history of economic exercises.

A) A. Smith; a) "Book about poverty and wealth"

B) U. Petty; b) "Research on the nature and causes of wealth of peoples"

C) I. Posochkov; c) "Labor is a father of wealth, the Earth is his mother."

16. The only source of all wealth considers the work:

A) merchant;

B) agriculture (farmer);

C) artisan;

D) a usurist;

E) the peasant community.

17. According to A. Smith's thought, much greater value for real wealth and income, adds capital investing:

A) in trade;

B) in agriculture;

C) to industry.

18. According to A. Smith's methodological position, private interest:

A) not separated from the general interest;

B) stands above public;

C) secondary to public.

19.A. Smith showed that the main stimulus economic activity man is:

A) high pace of development;

B) private interest;

C) Advanced technical equipment of production.

20.A. Smith emphasized that the natural price is equalized by the market due to

A) consumer value and full utility;

B) exchange cost;

C) oscillations of supply and demand;

D) constancy of the cost of labor, constant costs;

E) the fact that labor is value;

E) three-factor composition;

G) the ratio between the amounts of labor in production.

21. All people employed in agricultural production, F. Kene attributed to the class:

A) owners;

B) hired workers;

C) fruitless;

D) productive.

The methodology of classical political economy is presented in the works of the prominent founders of this school: A. Smith ("Research on the nature and causes of wealth of peoples", 1776), D. Ricardo ("The beginning of political economy and taxation", 1817), N. Senior, J. Mill and others. A. Smith considered the subject of economic science - the economic development and growth of society well-being, the development of the economy relies on material resources societies. The main provisions of the Methodology of A. Smith are as follows:

The interests of individuals coincide with the interests of society;

- "Economic man" is a person endowed with egoism and striving for increasing accumulation of wealth;

An indispensable condition for economic laws is free competition;

Pursuit of profit and free trade is estimated as an activity that is advantageous to the whole society;

"Invisible hand" operates on the market, with which free competition manages the actions of people through their interests and leads to the permission of public problems. best waywhich is most beneficial to both individuals and the whole society;

Recognition of the actions of objective economic laws;

A quantitative approach to economic laws (finding quantitative relations between such categories as cost, wages, profit, rent, percentage, etc.);

Use in the studies of the abstract method.

As a result, he made the conclusion that state regulation Must be minimal.

A. Smith described his research method as a system of reasoning at which we first we ask "some principles, apparent or proven, based on these, we explain a number of phenomena by tying all the general logic of reasoning." A. Smith tied science with "surprise", it allows you to do unexpected discoveries and admire.

D. Ricardo believed that the main task of economic science is to identify economic laws that manage the distribution of the product between classes. He formulated the economic law - "The Law of the Fall of the Norm of Profit", created the theory of land rent. D. Ricardo considered economic theory of science not by virtue of the methods used by it, but due to the reliability of its conclusions.

N. Senior argued that economic science is based on "a few common prerequisites that arise from observations of the surrounding reality or common sense and who almost every person, barely heard them, would recognize fair because they coincide with his own observations."

N. Senior allocated the following prerequisites:

1) Each person seeks to maximize its welfare with the minimum effort;

2) the population is growing faster than the resources required for its feed;

3) work armed with machines can produce a positive clean product;

4) In agriculture, the rate of return decreases.

James Mill determined economic science as "mental". She is interested in human motives and ways of behavior of people in economic life. Mill has allocated the following motifs: the desire for wealth, thirst for free time, non-economic motifs (habits, customs). He considered political economy by abstract science, which uses a priori method, i.e. The method of philosophizing that does not have any attitude towards experience at all. A priori method is a way to reason, pushing out some of the hypothesis put forward. Since the hypothesis is a premise, it may not have the actual base, and in this sense it can be said that the conclusions of political economy, as well as the conclusions of the geometry, are correct only abstractly, i.e. With some assumptions. Thus, J. Mill under the political economy as science understood a deductive analysis based on some psychological prerequisites and abstracts from all economic aspects of human behavior. Deduction - a way of reasoning from general provisions To the private, the withdrawal of private positions from any general thought (opposite induction). Mill believed that economic laws act as trends.

The main methodological provisions of the classical political economy can be expressed in the following paragraphs:

1 Classical Political Economy is the theory of wealth. She studied the economy mainly at the exit, from the material result of industrial activity - public Product, His structures and speakers. The product theory of the classical school was used further in the studies of K. Marx, V.leontiev, and others, in economic statistics, in various growth theories. Its empirical base and methods - work with macroeconomic data;

2 Classic School is a school of political economy, not economics. She did not just conduct an analysis of economic phenomena, but tried to consider them in connection with political, cultural, legal and other relations in society. Theoretics of this school was inherent in a synthetic, integrating approach;

3 The classic school sought to create an extremely abstract picture of economic reality. This led to a large extent to the rupture between the theoretical and empirical basis in a scientific study and gave the soil to criticize this direction by K. Marks and the German Historical School (V.Oroshera, G. Shmoller, etc.);

4 The classical political economy in the advantage took to armared the qualitative methodology for the study of economic phenomena, which led to the presence of large errors in their conclusions and caused a subsequent wave of criticism from other areas.

A. Smita and D.Rikardo laid the beginning of the labor theory of value. A. Smita introduced into scientific turnover and delimited the consumer and exchange value of the goods: "The word cost has two different meanings: sometimes it means the usefulness of some object, and sometimes the possibility of acquiring other items that is given by this subject. The first can be called a consumer value, the second-exchange cost.

A. Smita begins his study from the division of labor playing an important role in increasing labor productivity and in the growth of national wealth. It is with the division of labor that he has an idea of \u200b\u200ban "economic person". This category underlies the cost analysis, exchange, money, production. The cost, by Smith, is determined by the difficult labor of one particular person, but the average necessary for this level of development of productive forces. D. Ricardo proved that the unified criterion for determining the cost is the work expended on the production of goods and measured by the cost of working time. He more clearly had the differences between the consumer value of the goods and its value and showed that in production, the cost of the goods was determined by the work spent.

1 History of economic exercises / Ed. V.S. Avtonovova, O.I. Ananin, N.A. Makashova - M., 2001.

2 History of economic exercises / Ed. A.G. Hoodocormov. - M., 1998.

3 Orekhov, A.M. Methods of economic research / A.M. Orekhov.- M., Infra-M, 2009.

4 Riccardo, D. Beginning of Political Savings and Tax Cover / D. Riccardo // Op.: In 3T., M.: Politicize, 1955.

5 Smith, A. Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples / A.Smit. - M.: Econs, 1991.- T.1, p.36-37.

Control questions

1 Describe the main provisions of A. Smita methodology.

2 Give the characteristic of the research method A. Smita.

3 What are the merits of D. Ricardo in the development of economic science.

4 Give the characteristic of the main methodological provisions of classical political economy.

Topics of abstracts

1 Methodology of classical political economy.

2 Methods for the study of economists of the classical school.

3 Characteristics of the main works of A. Smita.

4 Characteristics of the main works of D.Rikarto.

Introduction

Main part

Chapter 1. general characteristics Classical direction:

1.1 Definition of classical political economy

1.2. Stages of development of classical political economy

1.3. Features of the subject and method of studying classical political economy

Chapter 2. First stage of development of classical political economy

2.1. Economic doctrine W. Petty

2.2. Economic doctrine P. Buagilbera

2.3. Economic Teaching F. Kene

Chapter 3. The second stage of the development of classical political economy

3.1. Economic Teaching A. Smith

Chapter 4. Third Stage of Development of Classical Political Economy

4.1. Economic doctrine D. Ricardo

4.2. Economic teaching J.B. Say

4.3. Economic teaching T. Malthus

Chapter 5. The fourth stage of the development of classical political economy

5.1. Economic Teaching J. S. Mill

5.2. Economic doctrine K. Marx

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

This work characterizes the classic direction in the history of economic exercises. It addresses the following range of issues: what caused the displacement of the concept of mercantilism and two hundred years of the domination of the classical political economy; As in economic science, the term "classical political economy" is interpreted; What stages covers classical political economy in their development; What are the features of the subject and method of studying the "classical school", as well as the main economic theories at the four stages of the development of the classical school of political economy.

Chapter 1. General characteristics of the classical direction

1.1. Determination of classical political economy

Classical political economy arose when entrepreneurial activities after the sphere of trade, monetary circulation and loan operations also spread to many industries and the sphere of production as a whole. Therefore, already in the manufactory period, which put forward in the economy in the economy, occupied in the field of production, the protectionism of mercantilists gave way to his dominant position of the new concept - the concept of economic liberalism based on the principles of non-interference of the state into economic processes, unlimited freedom of competition of entrepreneurs.

The specified period marked the beginning of a truly new school of political economy, which is classically called primarily for the scientific character of many of its theories and methodological provisions underlying and at the heart of modern economic science.

As a result of the decomposition of mercantilism and strengthening the increasing trend of restriction of direct state control over the economic activity of "pre-industrial conditions" have lost their former significance and "free private entrepreneurship" prevailed. The last one, according to P. Samuelson, led "to the conditions of complete Laissez Faire (i.e., the absolute non-interference of the state in a business life), the events began to take another turn", and only "... from the end of the XIX century. Almost in all countries there was a steady expansion of the economic functions of the state. "

In fact, the principle of "complete Laissez Faire" became the main motto of the new direction of economic thought - classical political economy, and its representatives promoted mercantilism and promoted to them the protectionist policies in the economy, having put forward an alternative concept of economic liberalism. At the same time, the classics have enriched economic science with many fundamental provisions, in many respects who did not lose their relevance and at present.

It should be noted that for the first time the term "classical political economy" used one of its trips to Marks in order to show its specific place in the "bourgeois political economy". And it consists of specifics, according to Marx, in the fact that from W.Petti to D.Rikardo in England and from P. Baagilbera to S. Sismondi in France the classical political economy "investigated the actual production relations of the bourgeois society."

In modern foreign economic literature, giving tribute to the achievements of classical political economy, they do not idealize them. At the same time, in the system of economic education, most countries of the world, the allocation of the "classical school" as a relevant section of the course of the history of economic exercises is carried out primarily from the point of view of its authors of general characteristic features and features. This position allows us to attribute to the number of representatives of the classical political economy a number of scientists of the XIX century - followers of the famous A. Smita.

For example, one of the leading economists of our time Professor Harvard University J.K.Galbreit in his book "Economic theories and goals of society" believes that "the ideas of A. Smita were subjected to further development of David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus and in particular John Stewart Millem and got a name classic system. In the widespread textbook "Economics" of the American scientist in many countries, one of the first laureates of the Nobel Prize in the economy P. Samuelson is also argued that D. Ricardo and J.S. Mill, being "the main representatives of the classical school ... developed and improved Ideas Smith. "

1.2. Stages of development of classical political economy

According to a generally accepted assessment, classical political economy originated at the end of the XVII - early XVIII century. In the works of U.Petti (England) and P. Baagilbera (France). The time of its completion is considered with two theoretical and methodological positions. One of them is Marxist - indicates the period of the first quarter of the XIX century, and English scientists A. Smita and D. Ricardo are considered completes of the school. On the other, the most common in the scientific world - the classics exhausted themselves in the last third of the XIX century. Labor J.S. Mill.

In the development of classical political economy with a certain convention, four stages can be distinguished.

First stage covers the period from the end of the XVII century. Before the second half of the XVIII century. This is a stage of a significant expansion of the scope of market relations, argued refutations of the ideas of mercantilism and its complete debate. The main representatives of the beginning of this stage, W.Petti and P. Baagilber, regardless of each other, first in the history of economic thought, put forward a labor theory of value, in accordance with which the source and measure of the cost is the amount of labor spent on the production of one or another commercial product or good. Condeming mercantilism and based on the causal dependence of economic phenomena, the basis of the wealth and welfare of the state, they saw not in the sphere of circulation, but in the sphere of production.

The first stage of the classical political economy has completed the so-called school of physiocrats, which is distributed in France in the middle and early two half of the XVIII century. The leading authors of this school F.Kene and A.Turgo in search of a source of pure product (national income), the land with difficulty gave the land. Criticizing mercantilism, physiocrats were even more delighted in the analysis of the spheres of production and market relations, although mainly in the field of agriculture, illegally moving away from the scope of treatment.

Second phase The development of classical political economy covers the period of the last third of the XVIII century. And undoubtedly associated with the name and works of A. Smita - the central figure among all its representatives. Its "Economic Man" and the "invisible hand" of Providence convinced not one generation of economists about natural order and inevitability, regardless of the will and consciousness of people of the natural action of objective economic laws. Largely due to it up to the 30s. The XX century was considered an irrefutable Regulations on the complete non-interference of government prescriptions in free competition. And this about him, as a rule, they say that "... No Western student, a scientist cannot consider himself an economist without knowing it (A. Smita. - Ya.) Labor."

According to N. Kondratieva, under the influence of the views of A. Smita in the classics, all their teachings are a preaching of the economic system based on the principle of freedom of individual economic activity as an ideal. " The authors of one of the popular books of the beginning of the XX century. "HISTORY OF ECONOMICS" S. L and S. Rist noted that mainly the authority of A. Smita turned the money to the "goods, even less necessary than any other product, the burdensome product, which is necessary to avoid if possible. This tendency to discredit money shown by Smith in the fight against mercantilism, they write, "then his followers will pick up, and exaggerating it, you will miss some of the features of the money circulation" .. Something like says Schumpeter, saying that A. Smitter and His followers "are trying to prove that money is not important, but at the same time they themselves are not able to consistently adhere to this thesis." And only some condescension of this omission of classics (first of all A. Smita and D.Rikardo) makes M. Blaug, believing that "their skepticism in relation to cash panaceans was quite appropriate in the conditions of the economy suffering from lack of capital and chronic Structural unemployment. "

It should be noted that A. Smitt (based on the analysis of a pin manufactory), the laws of division of labor and the growth of its productivity are considered to be classical. On its theoretical surveys, modern concepts about the product and its properties, income ( wages, profits), capital, productive and unproductive work and others.

Third stage The evolution of the classical school of political economy falls on the first half of the XIX century, when an industrial coup ended in a number of developed countries. During this period, followers and including students of A. Smita (many of them called themselves) were subjected to in-depth study and rethinking the basic ideas and concepts of their idol, enriched the school with fundamentally new and significant theoretical provisions. Among the representatives of this stage should be especially highlighted by the French, the British D.Rikardo, T.Maltus and N. Senior, Americans, and others. Although these authors, following how they claimed, and .Smit, the origin of the value of goods and services was seen either in the amount of labor spent either in production costs (but such a cost approach remained unappreciable), yet each of them left in the history of economic thought and the formation of market relations a rather noticeable trace.

So, J.B. Say in his dogmatic from the standpoint of the modern economic theory of the "Law of Markets" first introduced into the framework of economic research the problems of equilibrium between supply and proposal, the implementation of the aggregate social product depending on the market conjuncture. The basis of this "law", as obvious, and J.B. Say, and other classics contributed to the provision that when flexible wages and movable prices interest rate will balance the demand and supply, savings and investments in full employment.

D. Ricardo more than other contemporaries pampered with A. Smita. But, dividing the fullest glands of the latter about the income of the "main classes of society", he first revealed a regularity of the trend of the norm of profit to a decrease, developed a complete theory about the forms of land rent. It is also necessary to include one of the best justifications of the pattern of changing the value of money as goods depending on their quantity in circulation.

Fourth stage The development of classical political economy covers the period of the second half of the XIX century, during which the above-mentioned J.S. Mille and K. Marks summarized the best achievements of the school, on the other hand, by this time have already gained independent importance to new, more progressive areas of economic thought, Received the name "Marginalism" (end of the XIX century). As for the innovation of the ideas of the Englishman J.S. Millya and K. Marks, who wrote his works in exile from his native Germany, then these authors of the classical school, being strictly committed to the provision on the effectiveness of pricing in the context of competition and condemning class tendentiousness and vulgar apologetics in economic thought All the same sympathized with the working class were addressed to socialism and reforms. K. Marks, in addition, emphasized the increasing operation of labor capital, which, exacerbating the class struggle, should, in his opinion, inevitably lead to the dictatorship of the proletariat, "death of the state" and the equilibrium economy of a classless society.

1 .3. Features of the subject and method of studying classical political economy

Studying the overall characteristics of the history of classical political economy, it is necessary to allocate its uniform signs, approaches and trends in the subject and method of study and give them an assessment.

Firstly, PRESENTAL ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS OF PRODUCTION OF PRODUCTION IN OPERATION OF CONDUCTURE, EQUIPMENT AND APPLICATION OF PROGRESSIVE METHODOLOGICAL RECEPTIONS OF RESEARCH, including causal, deductive and inductive, logical abstraction. At the same time, an approach from class positions on the observed "production laws" and "productive work" was removed any doubts about the fact that the predictions obtained using logical abstraction and deduction should be exposed to experienced verification. As a result, the peculiarities of the production and circulation, productive and unproductive labor inherent in the classics, it became the reason for the underestimation of the pattern of economic entities of these areas ("human factor"), reverse influence on the sphere of monetary, credit and financial factors and other elements of the sphere of circulation.

Classics in solving practical tasks answers to the main questions were given, setting these questions, as N. Kontrayev expressed, "an estimated". This circumstance also did not contribute to the objectivity and sequence of economic analysis and theoretical generalization of the classical school of political economy.

Secondly, Relying on the causal analysis, calculations of medium and summary values economic indicators, Classics tried to identify the mechanism of origin of the cost of goods and fluctuations in the price level in the market not due to the "natural nature" of money and their number in the country, but in connection with the costs of production.

However, the costly principle of determining the price level of the classic school was not linked to another important aspect of market economic relations - product consumption (services) with a changing need of one or another good with the addition of this good one.

Thirdly The category "Cost" was recognized by the authors of the classic school the only source category of economic analysis, from which, as in the scheme of the genealogical tree, they are budding (grow) other derivatives inherently. In addition, this kind of simplification of analysis and systematization led a classic school to the fact that the economic study itself imitated the mechanical following the laws of physics, i.e. The search for the purely internal causes of economic well-being in society is excluding psychological, moral, legal and other social environmental factors.

Fourth , Exploring the issues of economic growth and improving the welfare of the people, the classics did not simply proceed from the principle of achieving an active trade balance (positive balance), but they tried to substantiate the dynamism and equilibrium of the state of the country's economy. However, with it, they were without serious mathematical analysis, the use of methods of mathematical modeling economic problemsallowing you to choose the best (alternative) option from a certain number of states of the economic situation.

Fifth, money, has long been and traditionally considered by the artificial invention of people, during the period of classical political economy, spontaneously elected goods in the goods world, which cannot be "canceled" by any agreements between people were recognized. Among the classics is the only one who demanded the abolition of money was P. Bagilber. At the same time, many authors of the classic school right up to middle of the XIX century. Did a variety of money functions were not given valued, allocating one - the function of the treatment tool, i.e. Taking money product as a thing as a technical tool, convenient for sharing. The underestimation of other functions of money was due to the misunderstanding of the opposite effect on the sphere of monetary factors.

Chapter 2. First stage of development of classical political economy

2.1. Economic doctrine W. Petty

William Petty (1623-1687) is the founder of the classical political economy in England, which has stated its economic views in works published in the 60-80s. XVII in ..

In the works of W. Petty, the subject of studying economic science (political economy) is the analysis of the problems of production. This is particularly obvious from the conjunction of this scientist in the fact that the creation and increase in wealth occurs only exclusively in the field of material production, and without any participation in this process of trade and commercial capital.

His views were transitional from mercantilism to classic political economy. He explained such economic phenomena as the price of goods, wages, the price of land and others. Petty delimited the "natural price" of the goods (the cost determined by the work) and the market price. They were first formulated by the root of theory labor value. A direct source of value, he considered only one type of labor - mining of gold and silver (i.e. money material).

With the theory of the cost of Petty directly related to its wage and rental doctrine. He reasoned like this: the goods are not working force, but labor, and the salary - the labor price, you only need to determine its value.

The rent, according to Petty, is the cost of a crop (it depends on the quality of the site) excluding production costs, i.e. Created by difficulty excess cost over wages. Petty's profit does not consider separately. Interestingly, the doctrine of Petty about the price of the Earth: the sale of land is the sale of the right to receive rent and must be calculated from the sum of the annual reven (without a loan percent).

2.2. Economic doctrine P. Buagilbera

Pierre Buagilber (1646-1714) - the height of the classical political economy in France. As the founder of a similar school of economic thought in England, W. Petty, he was not a professional scientist - an economist.

P. Buagilber, like W. Petty, opposing the mercantilists his own vision of the essence of wealth, came to the so-called concept of public wealth, the latter, in his opinion, manifest itself not in the physical mass of money, and in all the variety of useful benefits and things.

Thus, according to Buagilbera, not the increase in the money, but, on the contrary, the growth of production "food and clothing" is the main task of economic science. Like W. Petty, the subject of studying the political economy of Buagilber considers the analysis of the problems of the production sphere, recognizing this sphere the most significant and priority in comparison with the sphere of treatment.

2.3. Economic Teaching F. Kene

The formation of the economic thought of France of this period is associated with the ideas of Pierre Buagilbera and Francois Kene (1694-1774).

French Kene in 1758 created his "economic table", which became the basis for physiocrats, which turned to the sphere of production, looking for a source of surplus value. They limited this sphere only by agriculture.

In his famous "economic table", F.Kena performed the first scientific analysis Crooked economic Life. Public reproduction process. The ideas of this work indicate the need to comply with and reasonable forecasting certain national economic proportions in the structure of the economy. They identified the relationship, which he characterized like this: "Reproduction is constantly resumed by costs, and the costs are renewed by reproduction"

Next, Kene put forward the concept of "natural order", under which he understood the economy with free competition, a natural game of market prices without state intervention. Kene also argued that when exchanging equal things, wealth is not created and the profit does not arise, so he was looking for a profit outside the sphere of circulation.

Chapter 3. The second stage of the development of classical political economy

3.1. Economic Teaching Adam Smith

In the second half of 18 in England, favorable conditions for the take-off of economic thought were. His higher development, classical political economy reached in the works of British scientists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Like their predecessors, the founders of the classical school considered economic science as the doctrine of wealth and ways to increase it.

The main labor of Adam Smith on political economy is fundamental work - "Study of the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples." Smith's book consists of five parts. In the first, he analyzes the issues of value and income, in the second - nature of capital and its accumulation. In them, he outlined the foundations of his teaching. In other parts, he considers the development of Europe's economy in the era of feudalism and the formation of capitalism, the history of economic thoughts and government finances.

Adam Smith explains that the main theme of his work is economic development: the forces acting temporarily and manage the wealth of peoples.

"Study of the nature and causes of wealth" is the first in economic science of full-fledged work, sets out the general basis of science - the theory of production and distribution. Then an analysis of the action of these abstract principles on historical material and, finally, a number of examples of their application in economic policies. Moreover, all this work will penetrate the high idea of \u200b\u200bthe "obvious and simple system of natural freedom", to which, as he seemed to Adam Smith, the whole world goes. The central motive is the soul of the "wealth of peoples" - this is the action of the "invisible hand"; We get our bread not by the grace of the baker, but from its selfish interest. Smith managed to guess the fruitful idea that under certain social conditions, which we are described by the term "working competition" today, private interests can really be harmoniously combined with the interests of society. A market economy, not managed by collective will, not subordinate to a single plan, nevertheless, follows the strict rules of conduct. The impact on the market situation of the actions of one individual person, one of the set, may be imperceptibly. And in fact, he pays those prices that are requested from it, and can choose the amount of goods at these prices, based on its greatest benefit. But the totality of these individuals establishes prices; Each individual buyer is subject to prices, and the prices themselves are subject to the totality of all individual reactions. Thus, the "invisible hand" of the market provides a result that does not depend on the will and intention of the individual.

Moreover, this market automatism may well in a certain sense to optimize the distribution of resources. Smith removed the burden of evidence and created the postulate: decentralized, and atomistic competition in a certain sense ensures "maximum satisfaction of needs". Undoubtedly, Smith gave a deep meaning of his doctrine "maximum satisfaction of needs". He showed that:

· Free competition to strive to equate prices to production costs, optimizing the distribution of resources within these industries;

· Free competition in the markets of production factors tends to equalize the net advantages of these factors in all sectors and thereby establishes the optimal allocation of resources between the industries.

He did not say that various factors will be in the optimal proportions to be combined in production or that the goods will be optimally distributed among consumers. He did not say that saving from the scale and side effects of production are often interfere with the achievement of a competitive optimum, although the being of this phenomenon is reflected in his arguments about public works. But he really took the first step towards the theory of optimal distribution of these resources in the context of competing.

For the sake of fairness, it should be noted that his own faith in the advantage of the "invisible hand" is less related to considerations about the effectiveness of resource allocation in the static conditions of perfect competition. The decentralized price system, he considered desired because it gives results in dynamics: expands the scale of the market, multiplies the benefits associated with the division of labor - in one word, works like a powerful motor that provides capital accumulation and income growth.

Smith was not satisfied with the declaration that the free market economy provides the best life of life. He pays a lot of attention to the exact definition of the institutional structure that would guarantee best job market forces.

He understands that:

· personal interests may equally impede, and contribute to the growth of the welfare of society;

· the market mechanism will establish harmony only when it is included in the relevant legal and institutional framework.

Chapter 4. Third Stage of Development of Classical Political Economy

4.1. Economic doctrine D. Ricardo

The whole economic system of Ricardo arose as a continuation, development and criticism of Smith's theory. In the time of Ricardo, the industrial coup was in the initial stage, the essence of capitalism was not fully manifested. Therefore, the doctrine of Ricardo continues the ascending line for the development of the classic school.

The peculiarity of the position of Ricardo is that the subject of political economy has the study of the distribution. In its main theoretical work, the "start of political economy and tax case", Ricardo writes, bearing in mind the distribution of a social product: "Determine the laws that manage this distribution is the main task of political economy." It may impress that in this question, Ricardo takes a step back compared to A. Smith, since he puts forward a distribution area as a subject of political economy. However, in reality it is not at all. First of all, Ricardo will not at all exclude from the object of its analysis the scope of production. At the same time, the emphasis, which makes Ricardo on the distribution sphere, is aimed at identifying the social form of production as its own subject of political economy. And although the problem is not brought by Ricardo to its complete scientific decision, the importance of such a formulation in the works of the end of the classical school is difficult to overestimate.

In the works of Ricardo, it is in fact an attempt to allocate people's production relations, unlike the productive forces of society and declare these attitudes with their own subject of political economy. Ricardo actually identifies the entire set of production relations with distribution relations, thereby significantly limiting the framework of political economy. Nevertheless, Ricardo gave a deep interpretation of the subject of political economy, closely approached the secrets of the social mechanism of the capitalist economy. For the first time in the history of political savings, it was the basis of the economic theory of capitalism for the first time, the labor theory of value, which reflects the universal, the most typical relations for capitalism, namely the commodity relationship.

That is new that Ricardo has been submitted to the labor theory of value, due to the change in the historical situation, the transition of manufacturing capitalism to the capitalism of the machine stage. An important merit of Ricardo is that he, relying on the labor theory of value, he approached an understanding of the unified basis of all capitalist income - profits, land rent, percentage. Although he did not open the surplus value and the law of surplus value, however, Ricardo clearly saw that labor represents the only source of value and, consequently, the income of classes and social groups that do not participate in production are actually the result of the assignment of someone else's unpaid labor.

The theory of profit Ricardo is inherent in two most important contradictions:

· Contradiction between the law of value and the law of surplus value, which was expressed in the inability of Ricardo to explain the origin of the surplus value from the point of view of the law of value;

· The contradiction between the law of value and the average profit law, which was expressed in the fact that he failed to explain the average profit and the price of production from the position of the theory of labor value.

The main disadvantage of the theory of D. Ricardo is the identification of labor to them as a product with its function - labor. Thus, it leaves the problem of clarifying the essence and mechanism of capitalist exploitation. But, nevertheless, Ricardo is quite closely suitable for the correct quantitative determination of the labor price, actually the cost of labor. The distinctive natural and market prices of labor, he believes that under the influence of supply and supply, the natural price of labor is reduced to the value of a certain amount of vitality necessary not only for the content of workers and continue their kind, but also to a certain extent for development. Consequently, the natural price of labor is the cost category.

By Ricardo, the market price of labor fluctuates around natural under the influence of the natural movement of the working population. In case of exceeding the market price of labor over the natural, the number of workers increases significantly, the proposal of labor increases, at a certain stage increases the demand for it. For these circumstances, unemployment arises, the market value of occupation is beginning to fall. Its fall continues until the number of the working population begins to decrease, the proposal of labor will not decrease in accordance with the value of demand for it. In this case, the market labor price is reduced in relation to natural. Thus, the interpretation of the natural product of labor in D. Ricardo is quite contradictory.

David Ricardo was the end of the bourgeois political economy precisely because the scientific truths revealed to them became increasingly socially dangerous for the political and economic positions of the dominant class.

4.2. Economic Teaching Jean Batista Say

Official economic science in France in the first half of the XIX century. Represents School School. School School praised the capitalist entrepreneur, preached harmony of class interests, opposed the work movement.

In 1803, an essay of SEA was called "the treatise of political economy, or a simple statement of the method, which are formed, are distributed and wealth is distributed." This book, which Say subsequently reworked repeatedly and complemented for new editions (with all his life there were only five), and it remained its main work. The laborory of the cost, which, although not quite consistent, followed the Scot, was inferior to the "pluralistic" interpretation, where the cost was addressed to a number of factors: subjective utility of goods, costs of its production, supply and demand. The ideas of Smith on the operation of hired labor with capital (i.e., elements of the theory of surplus value) completely disappeared at SEI, giving way to the theory of production factors. Say followed Smith in its economic liberalism. He demanded a "cheap state" and advocated a minimum of its intervention in the economy. In this regard, he also adjoined the physiocratic tradition. In 1812, Say released the second edition of the "Treatise". In 1828-1930 Say issued a 6-Tomny "full course of practical political economy", in which, however, did not give anything new compared to the "Treatise".

In the first edition of the "TRATICAT", Say wrote four sales pages. On them, in fuzzy form, the idea was presented that the overall overproduction of goods in the farm and economic crises are in principle impossible. Every production itself generates income on which goods relevant value are bought. Cumulative demand in the economy is always equal cumulative offer. In his opinion, only partial imbalances may arise: one product is produced too much, too little. But it is straightened without a universal crisis. In 1803, Say formulated the law, according to which the supply of goods always gives rise to appropriate demand. Those. It most excludes the possibility of a universal overproduction crisis, and also believes that free pricing and minimizing state intervention in the market economy will cause automatic regulation of the market.

Production not only increases the supply of goods, but also due to the necessary coating costs of production generates the demand for these goods. "Products are paid for the products" - this is the essence of the law of the markets of SEI.

The demand for the products of any industry should increase in real terms when the offer of all industries is growing, because it is the proposal that creates demand for the products of this industry. SEA's law, he consequently warns us from applying to macroeconomic indicators judgments derived in microeconomic analysis. Separate goods can be made in excess relative to all other goods, the relative overproduction of at once all goods can not happen.

If it is said about the application of the law of SEI to the real world, it is approved by the unreality of excessive demand for money. "Unreality" in this case can hardly mean the logical inability. It should be understood that the demand for money can not be redundant, because it corresponds to the situation of non-equilibrium.

Using SEA arguments, the bourgeoisie put forward progressive requirements for reducing the bureaucratic state office, freedom of entrepreneurship and trade.

4.3. Economic teaching T. Malthus

A bright, peculiar contribution to economic science was made by the representative of the classical school Englishman T. Malthus. TRAKTAT T. Malthus "Experience on the Law of Population", published in 1798, produced and produces such a powerful impression on the reading public that discussions about this work are being conducted to the present. The range of ratings in these discussions is extremely wide: from the "brilliant foresight" to- "anti-science nonsense".

T. Malthus was not the first who wrote about demographic problems, but, perhaps, was the first one who tried to offer the theory describing the patterns of changes in population numbers. As for its system of evidence and statistical illustrations, they have already been presented to them in those days. In the XVIII-XIX centuries, T. Malthus, T. Malthus became known mainly due to the fact that her the author first proposed the refutation of the widespread thesis that the human society could be improved by social reform. For the economic science, TRAKTAT T. Malthus is valuable by the analytical conclusions that were subsequently used by other theoretics of classical and some other schools.

As we know, A. Smith proceeded from the fact that the material wealth of society is the relationship between the volume of consumption items and the population. The main attention of the Classical School founder paid to the study of patterns and conditions for the growth of production volume, the questions related to the patterns of changes in the population of the population were practically not considered. This task took on T. Malthus.

From the point of view, T. Malthus, there is a contradiction between the "instinct of the continuation of the kind" and the limited lands suitable for agricultural production. Instincts force humanity to multiply with very high speed, "in geometric progression". In turn, agriculture, but only it produces foods necessary for people, can produce these products with a much lesser speed, "in arithmetic progression." Consequently, any increase in the production of food production will be previously or later absorbed by the increase in population. Thus, the cause of poverty is the ratio of the growth rate of the population and the growth rates of life benefits. Any attempt to improve the living conditions by social reform is subject to no increasing human mass.

Relatively low growth rate of food products T. Malthus associates with the action of the so-called law of decreasing soil fertility. The meaning of this law is that the number of land facilities suitable for agricultural production is limited. The volume of production can grow only at the expense of extensive factors, and each next land plot is included in the economic turnover, everything with a large amount of costs, the natural fertility of each next land plot is lower than the previous one, and therefore general level The fertility of the entire land foundation as a whole tends to reduce. Progress in the field of agricultural production technology is generally very slow and is not able to compensate for the decrease in fertility.

Thus, hanging people with the ability to limitless reproduction, nature through economic processes imposes human limiters to the genus, which regulate the increase in numbers. Among these limiters, T. Malthus allocates: a moral limiter and a weakness of health that lead to a decrease in fertility, as well as vicious life and poverty, which lead to the increase in mortality. The decline in the birth rate and the increase in mortality is ultimately determined by the limitation of livelihood.

Of this formulation, the problem in principle can make completely different conclusions. Some commentators and interpreters T. Malthus saw in his theory of a manon-nurseful doctrine, which justifies poverty and calls for wars as the method of eliminating the unnecessary population. Others believe that T. Malthus laid the theoretical foundations of the Policy "Family Planning", which is widely used in the last thirty years in many countries of the world. T. Malthus himself only in every way emphasized only one thing - it is necessary to take care of himself and fully responsible for his inadvertime.

Chapter 5. The fourth stage of the development of classical political economy

5.1. Economic Teaching J. S. Mill

John Stewart Mill is one of the completes of classical political economy and "recognized authority in scientific circles whose research go beyond the technical economy."

The first "experiments" on political economy J.S. Mill published when he was 23 years old, i.e. In 1829, in 1843 his philosophical work "Logic System" appeared, which brought him fame. The main work (in five books, like A. Smita) entitled "The foundations of political economy and some aspects of their application to social philosophy" was published in 1848

J.S. Mill adopted a Ricardian view on the subject of political economy, putting forward to the fore "laws of production" and "distribution laws".

To the theory of the value of J.S. Mille considered the concept of "exchange value", "consumer value", "cost" and some others, he draws attention to the fact that the cost (value) cannot increase in all goods at the same time, since the cost represents The concept is relative.

The wealth, according to Mill, consists of goods with exchange costs as a characteristic property. "The thing for which nothing can be obtained instead, no matter how helpful or necessary, it is not wealth ... For example, air, although it is an absolute need for a person, no price has no price on the market, since it can be obtained practically free. " But as soon as the restriction becomes tangible, the thing immediately acquires the change value. The cash expression of the value of the goods is its price.

The cost of money is measured by the number of goods which you can buy them. "For other things being equal, the cost of money changes inversely proportional to the amount of money: any increase in the amount reduces their cost, and any decrease increases it in a completely identical proportion ... This is a specific property of money." We begin to understand the importance of money in the economy only when the monetary mechanism fails.

Directly prices are established by competition, which arises due to the fact that the buyer tries to buy cheaper, and sellers - sell more expensive. With free competition, the market price corresponds to equality of supply and demand. On the contrary, "the monopolist may, at its discretion, appoint any high price, if only she did not exceed the consumer, or does not want to pay; But this can not, only limit the proposal. "

On a long period of time, the price of goods cannot be lower than its production costs, since no one wants to produce himself at a loss. Therefore, the state of sustainable equilibrium between supply and supply "comes only when the items exchange each other commensurate their production costs."

Mill's capital calls the accumulated stock of labor products, resulting from savings and the existing "way of its constant reproduction." The savings themselves are understood as "abstaining from current consumption for the sake of future benefits." Therefore, savings are growing along with the rate of interest.

Production activities are limited by capital size. However, "every increase in capital conducts or can lead to a new increase in production, and without a certain limit ... If there are people and food capable of work for their feed, they can always be used in any production." This is one of the main provisions that distinguish the classical economic science from later.

Mille recognizes, however, that other restrictions are inherent in the development of capital. One of them is a reduction in capital income, which he explains the fall in the limit productivity of capital. So, increase production agriculture "Never achieve differently than by increasing labor costs in proportion that increases the volume in which the volume of agricultural products increases."

In general, when presenting a question about Mill's profits, seeks to adhere to Ricardo's views. The emergence of the average rate of profit leads to the fact that the profit becomes proportional to the capital used, and the prices are proportional costs. "That profit can be equal where costs are equal, i.e. Costs of production, things should exchange each other in proportion to the costs of their production: things whose costs of production are the same, must have the same cost, because only in this way the same costs will bring the same income. "

Mill's essence is analyzed, based on a simple quantitative theory of money and the theory of market percentage.

Mill's creativity meant the completion of the formation of classical economic science, the beginning of which was put by Adam Smith.

5.2. Economic doctrine of Karl Marx

One of the fundamental economic exercises of the 19th century is Marxism. The ideas of Marx and Engels were set forth in many works, but the main of them, containing the economic concept of Marxism in the most detailed form, is considered "capital".

The first volume of "capital" Contributes to the definition of the concepts of value, exchange value, forms of value and their development. Study of value forms, starting with simple, ending with money, was essential for the study of the essence and origin of money. An important conclusion of Marx was the provision that in the conditions of the elementary trade production, the economic relations of people are manifested through the relationship of things. This generates commodity fetishism.

Next, Marx analyzes the process of exploitation of the hired labor force, formulates the doctrine of the surplus value, which reveals the essence of labor as a product, the common features with the usual product and the specific features of the product of a special kind. In addition, Marx considers the process of production of surplus value. Of particular importance in the study of the Marks mechanism for the creation of surplus value is the analysis of continuous and variable capital as well as two main ways to increase surplus value: by elongating the working day and by reducing the necessary working time. The main conclusion of the first volume of "Capital" is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe historical trend of the capitalist direction.

In the second volume of "capital" Marx examines the process of circulation of capital. He considers capital metamorphosis and their circulation, capital turnover, reproduction and treatment of all social capital. Essential importance in the development of Marxist doctrine on capital and its structure was the division of capital on the main and revisidant.

The basis for the analysis of the reproduction of all public capital Marx puts its division into two divisions - the production of means of production and production of consumption. Using this separation, Marx designs its simple and expanded reproduction schemes. Based on the analysis of these schemes, the movement of the social product is investigated both within each unit and between them.

Third Tom "Capital" It contains the study of the process of capitalist production, taken as a whole. It discloses the dialectical unity of the process of reproduction and capital circulation, the transformation of the surplus value into profits is discussed, profits - in high profit, and cost - in the price of production. In addition, a loan captal and percentage are investigated. Marx shows that loan capital is the urban part of industrial capital, which, in a loan percentage, the feetchization of production relations reaches its highest level. The study of the transformed forms of surplus value is completed by an analysis of land rent.

In general, the economic theory of Marxism had a great influence on the development of the European, and especially Russian economic science.

Conclusion

The classic school of political economy applies to the number of mature directions of economic thought that left a deep mark in the history of economic exercises. Economic ideas The classic school did not lose their meaning to the present day. The classical direction originated in the XVII century and bloomed in the XVIII and at the beginning of the XIX century. The greatest merit of classics is that they put in the center of the economy and economic research work as creative strength and cost as an embodiment of value, thereby putting the beginning of the labor theory of value. The classic school has become a proclaimer of economic freedom ideas, liberal directions in the economy. Representatives of the classical school developed a scientific idea of \u200b\u200bthe surplus value, profits, taxes, land rental. In the depths of the classic school, in fact, the economic science was originated.

The main ideas of classical political economy are:

Bibliography:

2. Bartenev A., Economic Theories and Schools, M., 1996.

3. Blag M. Economic thought in retrospect. M.: "Case LTD", 1994.

4. Yadgarov Ya.S. History of Economic Thought. M., 2000.

5. Galbreit J.K. Economic theories and goals of society. M.: Progress, 1979.

6. Flu Sh., Rist S. History of economic exercises. M.: Economy, 1995.

7. Kondratyev N.D. Election op. M.: Economics, 1993.

8. Negoshi T. History of economic theory. - M.: Aspect - Press, 1995.

Novokuznetsk branch of Tomsk State Architectural and Construction University

Abstract on the topic:

Classical political economy, economic teachings A. Smith, D. Ricardo, T. Malthus, S. Mile.

Novokuznetsk 2010 year

Introduction

1. Classical political economy

1.1 General characteristics of the classic direction

1.2 Stages of the evolution of classical political economy

1.3 Features of the subject and method of studying the classical political economy

2. Economic teachings of representatives of the classic school

2.1 Economic Teaching A. Smith

2.2 Economic doctrine D. Ricardo

2.3 Economic Teaching T. Malthus

2.4 Economic Teaching J. S. Mill

Conclusion

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Introduction

This work characterizes the classic direction in the history of economic exercises. It addresses the next range of issues: as in economic science, the term "classical political economy" is interpreted; What stages covers classical political economy in their development; What are the features of the subject and method of studying the "classical school", as well as the main economic theories at the four stages of the development of the classical school of political economy.

The history of economic exercises is an integral link in the cycle of general education disciplines in the direction of "Economics".

The subject of studying this discipline is the historical process of the emergence, development and change of economic ideas and concepts presented in the theories of individual economists

Methodologically, the history of economic exercises is based on a set of progressive methods of economic analysis. These include methods: historical, logical abstraction, systemic.

HISTORY The history of economic teachings takes from the times of the ancient world, i.e. The appearance of the first states. Since then, up to date, constant attempts are carried out to systematize economic views into the economic theory adopted by society as a guide to action in the implementation of economic policy. At the same time, as the changes in economics, science, technology and culture occurred, and economic theory is constantly updated and improved.

1. Classical political economy

1.1 General characteristics of classical political economy

Classical political economy arose when entrepreneurial activities after the sphere of trade, monetary circulation and loan operations also spread to many industries and the sphere of production as a whole. Therefore, already in the manufactory period, which put forward in the economy in the economy, occupied in the field of production, the protectionism of mercantilists gave way to his dominant position of the new concept - the concept of economic liberalism based on the principles of non-interference of the state into economic processes, unlimited freedom of competition of entrepreneurs.

The socio-economic transformations that occurred also changed the nature of political economy. As you know, from the beginning of the XVII century. After reaching the "Treatise of Political Saving" by A.N. Monkereyne (1615) The essence of political economy was reduced by the conductors of the administrative (protectionist) solution to economic problems on the science of state economy. But by the end of the XVII century. And at the following time, the manufactory economy of the most developed European countries reached such a level that "advisers at the king" could no longer convince him about the ways to increase the country's wealth through "... work on gold, to contain the import and promotion of exports and about a thousand detailed orders to establish control over the economy »1.

The specified period marked the beginning of a truly new school of political economy, which is classical, primarily called, for the truly scientific character of many of its theories and methodological provisions underlying and at the heart of modern economic science. It is thanks to representatives of the classical political economy, the economic theory gained the status of scientific discipline, and so far, "When" Classical School "says, they mean a school that remains faithful principles, visiting the first teachers of economic science, and tries to prove them, develop And even corrected, but without changing in them what constitutes their being "2.

As a result of the decomposition of mercantilism and enhancing the increasing trend of restriction of direct state control over the economic activity of "pre-industrial conditions" has lost their former significance, and "free private entrepreneurship" prevailed. The last one, according to P. Samuelson, led "to the conditions of complete Laissez Faire (i.e., the absolute non-interference of the state in a business life), the events began to take another turn", and only "... from the end of the XIX century. Almost all countries there was a steady expansion of the economic functions of the state "3.

In fact, the principle of "full Laissez Faire" became the main motto of the new direction of economic thought - classical political economy, and its representatives distinguished mercantilism and the protectionist policies promoted by them in the economy, putting forward an alternative concept of economic liberalism. At the same time, the classics have enriched economic science with many fundamental provisions, in many respects who did not lose their relevance and by present.

It should be noted that for the first time the term "classical political economy" used one of its trips to Marks in order to show its specific place in the "bourgeois political economy".

1.2 Stages of the evolution of classical political economyand

According to a generally accepted assessment, classical political economy originated at the end of the XVII - early XVIII century. In the works of U.Petti (England) and P. Baagilbera (France). The time of its completion is considered with two theoretical and methodological positions. One of them is Marxist - indicates the period of the first quarter of the XIX century., English scientists A. Smita and D. Ricardo are considered completes of the school. On the other, the most common in the scientific world - the classics exhausted themselves in the last third of the XIX century. Labor J.S. Mill.

Briefly the essence of these positions is such. According to Marxist theory, it is argued that the classical political economy ended at the beginning of the XIX century. And changed the "vulgar political economy" because the genericants of the latter - Zh.B. Say and T.Maltus - grabbed, according to K. Marx, "for the external visibility of phenomena and the opposite of the law of the phenomenon." At the same time, the main argument that substantiates a selected position, the author of "Capital" believes "open" them as "the law of surplus value". This "law", according to his thought, follows from the central judging of A. Smita and D.Rikardo - labor theory of value, refusing from which the Vulgar Economist is doomed to become an apologist of the bourgeoisie trying to hide the exploitative essence in the relationship of the assignment of capitalists created by the Working Class surplus value. The conclusion K. Marks is unequivocal: "Classical School" convincingly revealed the antagonistic contradictions of capitalism and led to the concept of a claimless socialist future.

In the development of classical political economy with a certain convention, four stages can be distinguished.

The first stage covers the period from the end of the XVII century. Before the second half of the XVIII century. This is a stage of a significant expansion of the scope of market relations, argued refutations of the ideas of mercantilism and its complete debate. The main representatives of the beginning of this stage, W.Petti and P. Baagilber, regardless of each other, first in the history of economic thought, put forward a labor theory of value, in accordance with which the source and measure of the cost is the amount of labor spent on the production of one or another commercial product or good. Condeming mercantilism and based on the causal dependence of economic phenomena, the basis of the wealth and welfare of the state, they saw not in the sphere of circulation, but in the sphere of production.

The first stage of the classical political economy has completed the so-called school of physiocrats, which is distributed in France in the middle and early two half of the XVIII century. The leading authors of this school F.Kene and A.Turgo in search of a source of pure product (national income), the land with difficulty gave the land. Criticizing mercantilism, physiocrats were even more delighted in the analysis of the spheres of production and market relations, although mainly in the field of agriculture, illegally moving away from the scope of treatment.

The second stage of the development of classical political economy covers the period of the last third of the XVIII century. And undoubtedly associated with the name and works of A. Smita - the central figure among all its representatives. Its "Economic Man" and the "invisible hand" of Providence convinced not one generation of economists about natural order and inevitability, regardless of the will and consciousness of people of the natural action of objective economic laws. Largely due to it up to the 30s. The XX century was considered an irrefutable Regulations on the complete non-interference of government prescriptions in free competition.

Next, we note that the laws of the division of labor and the growth of its productivity are considered to be classic. Also, modern concepts about the product and its properties, income (wages, profits), capital, productive and non-production work and others are also based on its theoretical surveys.

The third stage of the evolution of the classical school of political economy falls on the first half of the XIX century, when industrial coup ended in a number of developed countries. During this period, followers and including students of A. Smita (many of them called themselves) were subjected to in-depth study and rethinking the basic ideas and concepts of their idol, enriched the school with fundamentally new and significant theoretical provisions. Among the representatives of this stage should be especially allocated to the French, the Russians and F. Bastia, the British, D. Ricardo, T.Maltus and N. Senior, Americans, and others.

D. Ricardo more than other contemporaries pampered with A. Smita. But, dividing the fullest glands of the latter about the income of the "main classes of society", he first revealed a regularity of the trend of the norm of profit to a decrease, developed a complete theory about the forms of land rent. It is also necessary to include one of the best justifications of the pattern of changing the value of money as goods depending on their quantity in circulation.

The Triad of Classic Economists - followers of Smith political economy is legitimately along with D. Ricardo and Zh.B.Seem Rebuild T. Maltus. This scientist, in particular, in the development of the imperfect concept of A. Smita on the mechanism of public reproduction (on Marx, "Dogma Smith") put forward theoretical provision on the "third parties", in accordance with which the real participation in the creation and distribution of the cumulative social product was not Only productive, but also unproductive layers of society. T.Maltus also belongs not to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe impact on the welfare of the society and the growth rate of the population and in our time, which indicates simultaneously about interdependence economic processes and natural phenomena.

The fourth final stage of the development of classical political economy covers the period of the second half of the XIX century, during which J.S. Mille and K.Mars also summarized the best achievements of the school: on the other hand, by this time already gained independent importance of new, more progressive directions of economic thought. who later received the name "Marginalism" (end of the XIX century) and "institutionalism" (beginning of the XX century). As for the innovation of the ideas of the Englishman J.S. Millya and K. Marks, who wrote his works in exile from his native Germany, then these authors of the classical school, being strictly committed to the provision on the effectiveness of pricing in the context of competition and condemning class tendentiousness and vulgar apologetics in economic thought still sympathized with the working class, they were addressed "to socialism and reforms" 14. Moreover, K. Marks, moreover, emphasized the increasing operation of labor with capital, which, exacerbating the class struggle, must, in his opinion, inevitably lead to the dictatorship of the proletariat, the "death of the state" and the equilibrium economy of classless society13.

1.3 Features of the subject and method of studying classical political economy

Continuing the overall characteristics of almost two hundred years of classical political economy, it is necessary to allocate its uniform signs, approaches and trends in the object and the study method and give them an appropriate assessment. They can be reduced to the following generalization.

First, the rejection of protectionism in the economic policy of the state and the preemptive analysis of the problems of production in the separation from the sphere of treatment, the development and use of progressive methodological methods of research, including causal (causal), deductive and inductive, logical abstraction. At the same time, an approach from class positions on the observed "production laws" and "productive work" was removed any doubts about the fact that the predictions obtained using logical abstraction and deduction should be exposed to experienced verification. As a result, the peculiarities of the production and circulation, productive and unproductive labor inherent in the classics, it became the reason for the underestimation of the pattern of economic entities of these areas ("human factor"), reverse influence on the sphere of monetary, credit and financial factors and other elements of the sphere of circulation.

Thus, adopting as a subject of study only the problems of the production of production, economists-classics, speaking by the words M. Blaug, "emphasized that the conclusions of economic science, ultimately, are based on postulates, equally handled from the observed" production laws "and Subjective introspection "16.

Moreover, classics in solving practical tasks answers to the main questions were given, setting these questions, as N. Kontrayev expressed, "Evaluly". For this reason, he believes, "... Answers who have the nature of the estimated Maxim and Rules, namely: a building based on freedom economic activityis the most perfect, freedom of trade is most favored by the prosperity of the nation, etc. ". This circumstance also did not contribute to the objectivity and sequence of economic analysis and theoretical generalization of the classical school of political economy.

Secondly, relying on the causal analysis, the calculations of the average and total values \u200b\u200bof economic indicators, classics (unlike mercantlers) tried to identify the mechanism of origin of the cost of goods and fluctuations in the price level on the market not in connection with the "natural nature" of money and their number in the country , and in connection with the costs of production or, on a different interpretation, the number of labor spent. Undoubtedly, since the time of classical political economy, there was no other economic problem in the past, and N. Kontrayev also indicated, which would attract "... such close attention of economists, the discussion of which would cause so many mental tension, logical tricks and polemicals, as a problem of value. And at the same time, it seems it is difficult to specify another problem, the main directions in the solution of which would remain so irreconcilable, as in the case of the problem of value, "18.

However, the cost principle of determining the price level of a classic school was not linked to another important aspect of market economic relations - product consumption (services) with a changing need in one or another good with the addition of this good to it. Therefore, it is quite fair to N. Kontreyeva, who wrote: "The previous excursion convinces us that until the second half of the XIX century, there is no conscious and distinct separation and distinguishing of theoretical judgments or practical. As a rule, the authors are convinced that those judgments that are actually judgments are equally scientific and reasonable, as well as those that are judgments theoretical "19. Several decades later (1962), L. von Mises expressed manyly a similar judgment. "Public opinion," he writes, "still impressed by a scientific attempt by representatives of the classical economic theory to cope with the problem of value. Not being able to solve the obvious paradox of pricing, the classics could not trace the sequence of market transactions up to the end user, but were forced to begin their constructions with a businessman actions, for which consumer utility assessments are specified. "

Thirdly, the category "Cost" was recognized by the authors of the classic school the only initial category of economic analysis, from which other derivatives of the category are oppressed in the scheme of the genealogical tree (grow). In addition, this kind of simplification of analysis and systematization led a classic school to the fact that the economic study itself imitated the mechanical following the laws of physics, i.e. The search for the purely internal causes of economic well-being in society is excluding psychological, moral, legal and other social environmental factors.

These disadvantages, referring to M. Blug, partly could be explained by the inability to the social sciences of a fully controlled experiment, as a result of which "economists in order to discard any theory, much more facts need, than, say, physicists" 22. M. Blaug himself, however, clarifies: "If the conclusions from the theorems of economic theory were amenable to unambiguous verification, no one would have heard the unrealistic prerequisites. But the theorems of economic theory cannot be unambiguously verified because all predictions have probabilistic character here. " And yet, if you do not avoid condescensions, you can agree with L. Mises that "many epigions of economists-classics have seen the task of economic science in the study of invalid events, but only those forces that some not quite understandably predetermined The emergence of real phenomena. "

Fourth, exploring the issues of economic growth and improving the welfare of the people, the classics did not simply proceed (again, unlike mercantlers) from the principle of achieving an active trade balance (positive balance), and they tried to substantiate the dynamism and equilibrium of the country's economy. However, as it is known, they were without serious mathematical analysis, the use of methods of mathematical modeling of economic problems that allow you to choose the best (alternative) option from a certain number of states of the economic situation. Moreover, the classic school. Achieving equilibrium in the economy considered automatically possible, dividing the "Law of Markets" mentioned above Z.SEI.

Finally, fifthly, money, has long been and traditionally considered by the artificial invention, during the period of classical political economy, spontaneously elected goods in the commodity world, which cannot be "canceled" by any agreements between people were recognized. Among the classics is the only one who demanded the abolition of money was P. Bagilber. At the same time, many authors of the classic school right up to middle of the XIX century. Did a variety of money functions were not given valued, allocating one - the function of the treatment tool, i.e. Taking money product as a thing as a technical tool, convenient for sharing. The underestimation of other functions of money was due to the misunderstanding of the opposite effect on the sphere of monetary factors.

Among the adherents of the skill of A. Smita in the postmanifact period, i.e. In the first half of the XIX century, in the history of economic thought, first of all, the names of D. Ricardo, J.B. Say, T.Maltus, N. Senior, F. Bastia and some other economists mention. Their work bears the imprint of the "new" time, which showed that economic science should be made again in comprehendment of the people achieved in the "wealth of peoples" in many economic categories and theories.

2. Economic teachings of representatives of the classic school

2.1 Economic Teaching Adam Smith

Adam Smith was born on June 5, 1723. The second half of 18 in England there were favorable conditions for the take-off of economic thought. His higher development, classical political economy reached in the works of British scientists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Like their predecessors, the founders of the classical school considered economic science as the doctrine of wealth and ways to increase it.

The main labor of Adam Smith on political economy is fundamental work - "Study of the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples." Smith's book consists of five parts. In the first, he analyzes the issues of value and income, in the second - nature of capital and its accumulation. In them, he outlined the foundations of his teaching. In other parts, he considers the development of Europe's economy in the era of feudalism and the formation of capitalism, the history of economic thoughts and government finances.

Adam Smith explains that the main theme of his work is economic development: the forces acting temporarily and manage the wealth of peoples.

"Study of the nature and causes of wealth" is the first in economic science of full-fledged work, sets out the general basis of science - the theory of production and distribution. Then an analysis of the action of these abstract principles on historical material and, finally, a number of examples of their application in economic policies. Moreover, all this work will penetrate the high idea of \u200b\u200bthe "obvious and simple system of natural freedom", to which, as he seemed to Adam Smith, the whole world goes. The central motive is the soul of the "wealth of peoples" - this is the action of the "invisible hand"; We get our bread not by the grace of the baker, but from its selfish interest. Smith managed to guess the fruitful idea that under certain social conditions, which we are described by the term "working competition" today, private interests can really be harmoniously combined with the interests of society. A market economy, not managed by collective will, not subordinate to a single plan, nevertheless, follows the strict rules of conduct. The impact on the market situation of the actions of one individual person, one of the set, may be imperceptibly. And in fact, he pays those prices that are requested from it, and can choose the amount of goods at these prices, based on its greatest benefit. But the totality of these individuals establishes prices; Each individual buyer is subject to prices, and the prices themselves are subject to the totality of all individual reactions. Thus, the "invisible hand" of the market provides a result that does not depend on the will and intention of the individual.

Moreover, this market automatism may well in a certain sense to optimize the distribution of resources. Smith removed the burden of evidence and created the postulate: decentralized, and atomistic competition in a certain sense ensures "maximum satisfaction of needs". Undoubtedly, Smith gave a deep meaning of his doctrine "maximum satisfaction of needs". He showed that:

Free competition to strive to equate prices to production costs, optimizing the distribution of resources within these industries;

Free competition in the markets of production factors seeks to equalize the net advantages of these factors in all sectors and thereby establishes the optimal allocation of resources between the industries.

He did not say that various factors will be in the optimal proportions to be combined in production or that the goods will be optimally distributed among consumers. He did not say that saving from the scale and side effects of production are often interfere with the achievement of a competitive optimum, although the being of this phenomenon is reflected in his arguments about public works. But he really took the first step towards the theory of optimal distribution of these resources in the context of competing.

For the sake of fairness, it should be noted that his own faith in the advantage of the "invisible hand" is less related to considerations about the effectiveness of resource allocation in the static conditions of perfect competition. The decentralized price system, he considered desired because it gives results in dynamics: expands the scale of the market, multiplies the benefits associated with the division of labor - in one word, works like a powerful motor that provides capital accumulation and income growth.

Smith was not satisfied with the declaration that the free market economy provides the best life of life. It pays a lot of attention to the exact definition of the institutional structure, which would guarantee the best work of market forces.

He understands that:

personal interests may equally impede, and contribute to the growth of the welfare of society;

the market mechanism will establish harmony only when it is included in the relevant legal and institutional framework.

2.2 Economic doctrine D. Ricardo

David Ricardo (1772--1823) is one of the bright personalities of the classical political economy of England, the follower and at the same time an active opponent of the individual theoretical provisions of the heritage of the Great A. Smita. The whole economic system of Ricardo arose as a continuation, development and criticism of Smith's theory. In the time of Ricardo, the industrial coup was in the initial stage, the essence of capitalism was not fully manifested. Therefore, the doctrine of Ricardo continues the ascending line for the development of the classic school.

The peculiarity of the position of Ricardo is that the subject of political economy has the study of the distribution. In its main theoretical work, the "start of political economy and tax case", Ricardo writes, bearing in mind the distribution of a social product: "Determine the laws that manage this distribution is the main task of political economy." It may impress that in this question, Ricardo takes a step back compared to A. Smith, since he puts forward a distribution area as a subject of political economy. However, in reality it is not at all. First of all, Ricardo will not at all exclude from the object of its analysis the scope of production. At the same time, the emphasis, which makes Ricardo on the distribution sphere, is aimed at identifying the social form of production as its own subject of political economy. And although the problem is not brought by Ricardo to its complete scientific decision, the importance of such a formulation in the works of the end of the classical school is difficult to overestimate.

In the works of Ricardo, it is in fact an attempt to allocate people's production relations, unlike the productive forces of society and declare these attitudes with their own subject of political economy. Ricardo actually identifies the entire set of production relations with distribution relations, thereby significantly limiting the framework of political economy. Nevertheless, Ricardo gave a deep interpretation of the subject of political economy, closely approached the secrets of the social mechanism of the capitalist economy. For the first time in the history of political savings, it was the basis of the economic theory of capitalism for the first time, the labor theory of value, which reflects the universal, the most typical relations for capitalism, namely the commodity relationship.

That is new that Ricardo has been submitted to the labor theory of value, due to the change in the historical situation, the transition of manufacturing capitalism to the capitalism of the machine stage. An important merit of Ricardo is that he, relying on the labor theory of value, he approached an understanding of the unified basis of all capitalist income - profits, land rent, percentage. Although he did not open the surplus value and the law of surplus value, however, Ricardo clearly saw that labor represents the only source of value and, consequently, the income of classes and social groups that do not participate in production are actually the result of the assignment of someone else's unpaid labor.

The theory of profit Ricardo is inherent in two most important contradictions:

Contradiction between the law of value and the law of surplus value, which was expressed in the inability of Ricardo to explain the origin of the surplus value in terms of the law of value;

The contradiction between the law of value and the law of average profits, which was expressed in the fact that he failed to explain the average profit and the price of production from the position of the theory of labor value.

The main disadvantage of the theory of D. Ricardo is the identification of labor to them as a product with its function - labor. Thus, it leaves the problem of clarifying the essence and mechanism of capitalist exploitation. But, nevertheless, Ricardo is quite closely suitable for the correct quantitative determination of the labor price, actually the cost of labor. The distinctive natural and market prices of labor, he believes that under the influence of supply and supply, the natural price of labor is reduced to the value of a certain amount of vitality necessary not only for the content of workers and continue their kind, but also to a certain extent for development. Consequently, the natural price of labor is the cost category.

By Ricardo, the market price of labor fluctuates around natural under the influence of the natural movement of the working population. In case of exceeding the market price of labor over the natural, the number of workers increases significantly, the proposal of labor increases, at a certain stage increases the demand for it. For these circumstances, unemployment arises, the market value of occupation is beginning to fall. Its fall continues until the number of the working population begins to decrease, the proposal of labor will not decrease in accordance with the value of demand for it. In this case, the market labor price is reduced in relation to natural. Thus, the interpretation of the natural product of labor in D. Ricardo is quite contradictory.

David Ricardo was the end of the bourgeois political economy precisely because the scientific truths revealed to them became increasingly socially dangerous for the political and economic positions of the dominant class.

2.3 Economic teaching T. Malthus

Thomas Robert Maltus (1766-1834) is a prominent representative of the classical political economy of England. The creativity of this scientist was formed mainly in the first quarter of the XIX century, but the results of his scientific research are valuable for modern economic theory.

A bright, peculiar contribution to economic science was made by the representative of the classical school Englishman T. Malthus. TRAKTAT T. Malthus "Experience on the Law of Population", published in 1798, produced and produces such a powerful impression on the reading public that discussions about this work are being conducted to the present. The range of ratings in these discussions is extremely wide: from the "brilliant foresight" to- "anti-science nonsense".

T. Malthus was not the first who wrote about demographic problems, but, perhaps, was the first one who tried to offer the theory describing the patterns of changes in population numbers. As for its system of evidence and statistical illustrations, they have already been presented to them in those days. In the XVIII-XIX centuries, T. Malthus, T. Malthus became known mainly due to the fact that her the author first proposed the refutation of the widespread thesis that the human society could be improved by social reform. For the economic science, TRAKTAT T. Malthus is valuable by the analytical conclusions that were subsequently used by other theoretics of classical and some other schools.

As we know, A. Smith proceeded from the fact that the material wealth of society is the relationship between the volume of consumption items and the population. The main attention of the Classical School founder paid to the study of patterns and conditions for the growth of production volume, the questions related to the patterns of changes in the population of the population were practically not considered. This task took on T. Malthus.

From the point of view, T. Malthus, there is a contradiction between the "instinct of the continuation of the kind" and the limited lands suitable for agricultural production. Instincts force humanity to multiply with very high speed, "in geometric progression". In turn, agriculture, but only it produces foods necessary for people, can produce these products with a much lesser speed, "in arithmetic progression." Consequently, any increase in the production of food production will be previously or later absorbed by the increase in population. Thus, the cause of poverty is the ratio of the growth rate of the population and the growth rates of life benefits. Any attempt to improve the living conditions by social reform is subject to no increasing human mass.

Relatively low growth rate of food products T. Malthus associates with the action of the so-called law of decreasing soil fertility. The meaning of this law is that the number of land facilities suitable for agricultural production is limited. The volume of production can grow only due to extensive factors, and each next land plot is included in the economic turnover, everything with a large amount of costs, the natural fertility of each of the next land plot is lower than the previous one, and therefore the overall level of fertility of the entire land fund as a whole tends to reducing . Progress in the field of agricultural production technology is generally very slow and is not able to compensate for the decrease in fertility.

Thus, hanging people with the ability to limitless reproduction, nature through economic processes imposes human limiters to the genus, which regulate the increase in numbers. Among these limiters, T. Malthus allocates: a moral limiter and a weakness of health that lead to a decrease in fertility, as well as vicious life and poverty, which lead to the increase in mortality. The decline in the birth rate and the increase in mortality is ultimately determined by the limitation of livelihood.

Of this formulation, the problem in principle can make completely different conclusions. Some commentators and interpreters T. Malthus saw in his theory of a manon-nurseful doctrine, which justifies poverty and calls for wars as the method of eliminating the unnecessary population. Others believe that T. Malthus laid the theoretical foundations of the Policy "Family Planning", which is widely used in the last thirty years in many countries of the world. T. Malthus himself only in every way emphasized only one thing - it is necessary to take care of himself and fully responsible for his inadvertime.

2.4 Economic Teaching J. S. Mill

John Stewart Mill (1806-1873) is one of the completes of classical political economy. John Stewart Mill is one of the completes of classical political economy and "recognized authority in scientific circles whose research go beyond the technical economy."

The first "experiments" on political economy J.S. Mill published when he was 23 years old, i.e. In 1829, in 1843 his philosophical work "Logic System" appeared, which brought him fame. The main work (in five books, like A. Smita) entitled "The foundations of political economy and some aspects of their application to social philosophy" was published in 1848

J.S. Mill adopted a Ricardian view on the subject of political economy, putting forward to the fore "laws of production" and "distribution laws".

To the theory of the value of J.S. Mille considered the concept of "exchange value", "consumer value", "cost" and some others, he draws attention to the fact that the cost (value) cannot increase in all goods at the same time, since the cost represents The concept is relative.

The wealth, according to Mill, consists of goods with exchange costs as a characteristic property. "The thing for which nothing can be obtained instead, no matter how helpful or necessary, it is not wealth ... For example, air, although it is an absolute need for a person, no price has no price on the market, since it can be obtained practically free. " But as soon as the restriction becomes tangible, the thing immediately acquires the change value. The cash expression of the value of the goods is its price.

The cost of money is measured by the number of goods which you can buy them. "For other things being equal, the cost of money changes inversely proportional to the amount of money: any increase in the amount reduces their cost, and any decrease increases it in a completely identical proportion ... This is a specific property of money." We begin to understand the importance of money in the economy only when the monetary mechanism fails.

Directly prices are established by competition, which arises due to the fact that the buyer tries to buy cheaper, and sellers - sell more expensive. With free competition, the market price corresponds to equality of supply and demand. On the contrary, "the monopolist may, at its discretion, appoint any high price, if only she did not exceed the consumer, or does not want to pay; But this can not, only limit the proposal. "

On a long period of time, the price of goods cannot be lower than its production costs, since no one wants to produce himself at a loss. Therefore, the state of sustainable equilibrium between supply and supply "comes only when the items exchange each other commensurate their production costs."

Mill's capital calls the accumulated stock of labor products, resulting from savings and the existing "way of its constant reproduction." The savings themselves are understood as "abstaining from current consumption for the sake of future benefits." Therefore, savings are growing along with the rate of interest.

Production activities are limited by capital size. However, "every increase in capital conducts or can lead to a new increase in production, and without a certain limit ... If there are people and food capable of work for their feed, they can always be used in any production." This is one of the main provisions that distinguish the classical economic science from later.

Mille recognizes, however, that other restrictions are inherent in the development of capital. One of them is a reduction in capital income, which he explains the fall in the limit productivity of capital. Thus, increasing the volume of agricultural products "will never be achieved differently than by increasing labor costs in proportion that increases the volume in which the volume of agricultural products increases."

In general, when presenting a question about Mill's profits, seeks to adhere to Ricardo's views. The emergence of the average rate of profit leads to the fact that the profit becomes proportional to the capital used, and the prices are proportional costs. "That profit can be equal where costs are equal, i.e. Costs of production, things should exchange each other in proportion to the costs of their production: things whose costs of production are the same, must have the same cost, because only in this way the same costs will bring the same income. "

Mill's essence is analyzed, based on a simple quantitative theory of money and the theory of market percentage.

Mill's creativity meant the completion of the formation of classical economic science, the beginning of which was put by Adam Smith.

Z.Action

The classic school of political economy applies to the number of mature directions of economic thought that left a deep mark in the history of economic exercises. The economic ideas of the classical school did not lose their significance to the present day. The classical direction originated in the XVII century and bloomed in the XVIII and at the beginning of the XIX century. The greatest merit of classics is that they put in the center of the economy and economic research work as creative strength and cost as an embodiment of value, thereby putting the beginning of the labor theory of value. The classic school has become a proclaimer of economic freedom ideas, liberal directions in the economy. Representatives of the classical school developed a scientific idea of \u200b\u200bthe surplus value, profits, taxes, land rental. In the depths of the classic school, in fact, the economic science was originated.

The main ideas of classical political economy are:

1. A person is considered only as an "economic person", which has only one desire - the desire for its own benefit, to improving its position. Morality, culture, customs, etc. Not taken into account.

2. All parties participating in the economic transaction are free and equal to the law and in the sense of foresight and prudency.

3. each economic Subject Completely aware of prices, profits, wages and rent on any market both at the moment and in the future.

4. The market provides full resource mobility: labor and capital can instantly move to the right place.

5. Elasticity of wage workers no less than one. In other words, any increase in wages leads to an increase in the number of labor, and any decrease in wages to reduce the number of labor force.

6. The sole purpose of capitalist is to maximize the capital.

7. The scale of the labor market takes place the absolute flexibility of money wages (its value is determined only by the relationship between supply and demand in the labor market).

8. The main factor in the increase in wealth is the accumulation of capital.

9. Competition must be perfect, and the economy is free from excessive state intervention. In this case, the "invisible hand" of the market will provide the optimal distribution of resources.

LISTUsedLiterature

2. Bartenev A., Economic Theories and Schools, M., 1996.

3. Blag M. Economic thought in retrospect. M.: "Case LTD", 1994.

4. Yadgarov Ya.S. History of Economic Thought. M., 2000.

5. Galbreit J.K. Economic theories and goals of society. M.: Progress, 1979.

6. Flu Sh., Rist S. History of economic exercises. M.: Economics, 1995.

7. Kondratyev N.D. Election op. M.: Economics, 1993.

8. Negoshi T. History of economic theory. - M.: Aspect - Press, 1995.

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Introduction

1. General characteristics of classical political economy

2. Basic representatives of classical political economy

2.1 "Political Arithmetic" William. Petty.

2.4 Treatise of Political Saving Jean Batista Saya

Conclusion

Bibliography

classic Political Economy Petty Smith

Introduction

The topic of my test work seems not relevant today. Some economists consider unnecessary to turn to theories and views of the past, because these theories and views "overgrown with seashells" and lost their significance, and therefore, you should not lose time for familiarity with them.

Those who adhere to this, purely negative opinion, are relatively few. The absolute majority of specialists do not share it.

The purpose of my work is to characterize one of the directions in the history of economic exercises, namely the classical political economy: general features characterizing this direction, its most well-known representatives and their contribution to economic science.

The processes occurring in the economy, "Classics" presented in the one-piece, most enriched form as the sphere of interrelated laws and categories, as a logically slender system of relations.

The classic school laid a significant foundation for economic theory, which opened the path to further improvement, deepening and development.

Studying the evolution of economic concepts, we strive to understand how the process of formation and enrichment of our knowledge of the economy is unfolded, as well as many ideas of the past and today retain their relevance, how they affect our modern ideas.

1. General characteristics of classical political economy

1.1 Definition of classical political economy

The classic school of political economy applies to the number of mature directions of economic thought that left a deep mark in the history of economic exercises. The economic ideas of the classical school did not lose their significance to the present day. The classical direction originated in the XVII century and bloomed in the XVIII and early XIX century. The greatest merit of classics is that they put in the center of the economy and economic research work as creative strength and cost as an embodiment of value, thereby putting the beginning of the labor theory of value. The classic school has become a proclaimer of economic freedom ideas, liberal directions in the economy. Representatives of the classic school have developed a scientific idea of \u200b\u200bthe surplus value, profits, land rental taxes. In the depths of the classic school, in fact, the economic science was originated.

Classical political economy arose when entrepreneurial activities after the sphere of trade, monetary circulation and loan operations also spread to many industries and the sphere of production as a whole. Therefore, already in the manufactory period, which put forward in the economy in the economy, occupied in the field of production, the protectionism of mercantilists gave way to his dominant position of the new concept - the concept of economic liberalism based on the principles of non-interference of the state into economic processes, unlimited freedom of competition of entrepreneurs.

For the first time, the term "classical political economy" used one of its completes K. Marx in order to show its specific place in the "bourgeois political economy". And it consists of specificity, in Marx, in the fact that from W. Petti to D. Ricardo in England and from P. Buagilbera to S. Sissondi in France classical political economy "investigated the actual production relations of the bourgeois society."

As a result of the decomposition of mercantilism and strengthen the increasing trend of restriction of direct state control over the economic activities of the pre-industrial conditions, the "free private entrepreneurship" prevailed and prevailed. The latter, according to P. Samuelson, led "to the conditions of full Laissez Faire (i.e., the stateless non-interference of the state in a business life), the events began to take another turn", and only "... from the end of the XIX century. In almost all countries there was a steady expansion of the economic functions of the state. "

In reality, the principle of "complete Laissez Faire" became the main motto of the new direction of economic thought - classical political economy, and its representatives promoted mercantilism and promoted to them the protectionist policy in the economy, having put forward an alternative concept of economic liberalism.

In modern foreign economic literature, giving tribute to the achievements of classical political economy, they do not idealize them. At the same time in the system of economic education of most countries of the world, the allocation of the "classical school" as an appropriate section of the course of the history of economic exercises is carried out primarily from the point of view of its authors of common characteristic features and features:

Emphasis on analyzing the problems of production and distribution of material goods;

Development and application of progressive methodological methods of research;

The core of the economic analysis of classics is the problem of value;

All classics interpreted the value as a value determined by production costs;

Perception economic System As systems similar to the objects of study of physics of that time (or rather, mechanics). This, in turn, led to the following features of the economic analysis of the classical school: the conviction is that universal and objective (economic) laws are dominated in the market (capitalist) economy; and ignoring subjective psychological factors of economic life.

Underestimation of the role of money and the impact of the sphere of appeal to the sphere of production.

Money was perceived by classics as a technical tool helping to facilitate the exchange. The classics ignored the role of money as the most liquid means to preserve value. The end of the classical political economy of J. S. Mill wrote: "In short, it is hardly possible to find a thing in the public economy more minor in its importance than money, if you do not concern how time and work will save,"

Big focus on the study of "laws of movement", i.e. Laws of trends, dynamics, capitalist economy.

Negative attitude (with rare exceptions like J. S. Mill) to the active intervention of the state in the economy. Classics followed physiocrats advocated the ideology of Laissez-Faire.

1.2 Stages of the development of classical political economy

According to a generally accepted assessment, classical political economy originated at the end of the XVII - early XVIII century. In the works of U. Petti (England) and P. Buagilbera (France). The time of its completion is considered with two theoretical and methodological positions. One of them, Marxist, indicates the period of the first quarter of the XIX century., And the ENGLISH School are considered to be English scientists A. Smith and D. Ricardo. According to the most common in the scientific world, the classics exhausted themselves in the last third of the XIX century. Labor J. S. Mill. In the development of classical political economy with a certain convention, four stages can be distinguished.

Firststage covers the period from the end of the XVII century. Before the second half of the XVIII century. This is a stage of a significant expansion of the scope of market relations, argued refutations of the ideas of mercantilism and its complete debate. The first representative and progenitor of the classical school should be considered an English economist W. Petty, whom Marx called the "father of political economy and in some way the inventor of statistics."

Secondstage The development of classical political economy covers the period of the last third of the XVIII century. and is associated with the name and works of A. Smith. Its influence affected not at the same school.

The thirdstage The evolution of the classic school falls on the first half of the XIX century, when an industrial coup ended in a number of developed countries. During this period, Smith's followers were subjected to in-depth study and rethinking the basic ideas and concepts of their idol, enriched the school with fundamentally new and significant theoretical provisions. Representatives of this stage include J. B. SEA, British D, Ricardo, T. Malthus and N. Senior, and others. Each of them left in the history of economic thought and the formation of market relations a rather notable mark.

Fourth The final stage of the development of the classical political economy covers the period of the second half of the XIX century, during which J. S. Mill and K. Marx summarized the best achievements of the school. On the other hand, by this time, new, more progressive areas of economic thought were already acquired, who later received the name "Marginalism" (end of the XIX century) and "institutionalism" (beginning of the XX century).

2. Main representatives of classical political economy

2.1 "Political Arithmetic" William Petty

The beginning of the formation of a classic school put William Petty (1623-1687). He is called the founder of statistics, a person who has expressed fragmentarly many curious considerations and conclusions that opened the way to the creation of economic theory, economic science.

Petty interested not external manifestation, but the essence of economic processes, he tried to "explain the mysterious nature" of taxes and their consequences, money rent, rent from the ground, money, the origins of wealth. In his opinion, the subject of studying political economy is primarily an analysis of the problems of the production sphere, he believed that the creation and increase in wealth occurs exclusively in the field of material production.

In "Treatise on taxes and fees", Petty concludes that "there is a certain measure or a proportion of the money necessary for the conduct of mill trafficking." Surplus or lack of money against this measure will bring it harm. Reducing the metal content of money cannot be a source of wealth.

In his works, he considered what factors participate in the production of products, creating wealth. Petty allocates four factors. The first two are land and work - the main. He believes that "the assessment of all subjects should lead to two natural denominers: to Earth and work, i.e. We should have to say: the cost of the ship or the improton is equal to the cost of such a thing and such a matter of labor, because both - both the ship and fruke are produced by land and human labor. "

Two other factors involved in the creation of a product are not basic. This is a qualification, the art of the employee and the means of its work - tools, stocks and materials. They do work productive. But both of these factors cannot exist independently, i.e. without difficulty and land.

Thus, Petty considered two measurements of the cost - work and land. Almost he proceeded from the fact that in any type of labor there is something in common, which allows to compare all types of labor.

W. Petty believed that wealth is created primarily by the labor and its results.

Petty expressed a number of theses, which contain the initial positions of the theory of value. Cost have money. The amount of money that can be obtained for the product determine its cost. Determine not directly through labor costs, and indirectly through the cost of manufacturing money (silver and gold) offered for these products. The cost does not create any work, but one that is spent on the production of silver.

The incomes of entrepreneurs and landowners are characterized by W. Pette through the essence of the concept of "Rent" by the essentially. In particular, calling Rent from the Earth the difference between the cost of bread and costs for its production, he replaced it such a thing as the profit of the farmer.

For a hundred years before A. Smith, W. Petty anticipated and put forward many ideas that later clarified, led to a logical order, freed from some contradictions and inconsistency by A. Smith.

2.2 Adam Smith: "Investigation of the nature and causes of wealth of peoples"

Adam Smith is called the classic school. It was A. Smith (1723-1790), a professor and systemics, the Cabinet Scientist and Encyclopedically educated researcher, developed and presented the economic picture of society as a system.

The work of A. Smith "Wealth of Peoples" is not a collection of recommendations, but the work that sets out a certain concept in a systematized form. It is saturated with examples, historical analogies, references to business practice.

Labortheorycost

The fact that Petty expressed in the form of guessing, Adam Smith substantiated as a system, a detailed concept. "The wealth of the people is not in one land, not in some money, but in all things that are suitable for meeting our needs and to increase our vital pleasures."

Unlike mercantlers and physiocrats, Smith argued that the source of wealth should not be sought in any specific kind of classes. Wealth is a product of the total labor of all - farmers, artisans, sailors, merchants, i.e. Representatives of various types of labor and professions. The source of wealth, the creator of all values \u200b\u200bis the work.

By Smith, the true creator of wealth is the "annual work of each nation", sent for annual consumption. According to modern terminology, it is a gross national product (GNP).

He distinguishes between the types of labor that are embodied in material things, and those who like the work of the home servant are a service, and the services "disappear at the very moment of their provision." If work is useful, it does not mean that it is produced.

Every wealth is created by difficulty, but the products of labor are not created for themselves, but for the exchange ("every person lives exchange or becomes a well-known degree by the trader"). The meaning of the commodity society is that products are manufactured as goods for exchange. The point is not just that the exchange of goods on the goods is equivalent to the spent work. The result of the exchange is mutually beneficial.

ABOUTseparationlaborandexchange

People binds the division of labor. It makes the exchange beneficial for its participants, and the market, commodity society is effective. Buying someone else's work, his buyer saves his work.

By Smith, the division of labor plays the most important role in an increase in the productive forces of labor and the growth of national wealth. The deeper the division of labor, the more intense the exchange.

"Give me what I need, and you will get what you need." "It is this way that we get from each other significantly most of the services in which we need" - these positions of Smith often quote his commentators.

"Invisiblehand"marketforces

One of the leading ideas of the "wealth of peoples" - about the "invisible hand." The market economy is not controlled from the Unified Center, does not obey one overall plan. Nevertheless, it functions according to certain rules, follows.

The paradox or the essence of the market mechanism is that private interest and desire for their own gain benefits society, ensures the achievement of a common good. In a market economy (in the market mechanism), the "invisible hand" of market forces, market mechanisms, which suggests the minimum state intervention and market self-regulation based on free prices, developing depending on the demand and proposal under the influence of competition.

Twoapproachtoeducationcost

Considering the pricing problem and the essence of the price, Smith put forward two positions.

The first reads: the price of goods is determined by labor spent on it. This provision, in his opinion, is applicable to "primitive societies". And Smith puts forward the second, according to which the cost, and therefore the price is made up of labor costs, profits, percentage of capital, land rent, i.e. Determined by production costs. The essence of these provisions is reflected in Figure 1: the first position in the form of a solid arrow with the inscription "Labor", and the second is expressed using dotted arrows with the inscriptions "Capital" and "Earth".

Principleeconomicalfreedom

Smith believed that the market must be protected from external intervention. The freedom of economic activity of individuals does not need to impede, should not be strictly regulated. Smith opposes unnecessary restrictions on the part of the state, he for freedom of trade, including foreign trade, for politics of Frittime, against protectionism.

Rolestatesprinciplestaxation

Not rejecting fully participation in economic life and control by the state, Smith will lead him the role of "night guard", and not regulators and regulators of economic processes.

Smith allocates three functions that are designed to fulfill the state: the administration of justice, the protection of the country, the device and the content of public institutions.

He also claims that the payment of taxes should be placed not to one class, as physiocrats offered, and at all the same - for labor, to capital and to Earth.

Smith justifies the principle of proportional separation of the tax burden - in terms of the level of property consistency of taxpayers.

It is believed that the three postulates Smith (analysis of the "Economic man", the "invisible hand" of the market, wealth as a target function and object of economic relations) still define the vector of economic science. They form the Smith paradigm.

2.3 David Ricardo: "The start of political economy"

David Ricardo (1772-1823) sought to overcome the inconsistency of individual provisions, more clearly substantiate other provisions, to fully develop the third.

Ricardo actually continued the formation of the fundamental principles of the classical school of political economy and, together with Smith, is considered to be its hedge.

The main work of Ricardo is "the beginning of political economy and taxation" (1817). Ricardo showed that it, as well as A. Smith, is primarily interested in the inevitable economic "laws", whose knowledge will allow to manage the distribution of income generated in the field of material production.

Theorycost-positionRicardo

The detention of Smith dual assessment of this category, he pesterly insists that only one factor "work" underlies the cost. According to its wording "the cost of goods or the number of any other goods, which it exchanges depends on the relative amount of labor, which is necessary for its production, and not from a greater or less remuneration, which is paid for this work."

Theorymoney

The positions of D. Ricardo on the theory of money were based on the provisions characteristic of the shape of the golden standard, according to which a free and guaranteed exchange of paper money was subject to the amount of gold into the amount of gold in the coin referred to. With this in mind, the author "began" wrote that "neither gold nor any other goods can always serve as a perfect measure of value for all things." In addition, D. Ricardo was a supporter of a quantitative theory of money, linking the change in their value as goods with their (money) amount in circulation. He also believed that "Money serves as an universal exchange between all civilized countries and are distributed between them in proportions that change with each improvement in trade and machines, with each increase in the difficulty of making food and other items of vitality for the growing population." Finally, according to his thoughts, money as goods while reducing their value determine the need for wage growth, which in turn "... consistently accompanied by an increase in the price of goods."

Theoryrevenues

The theory of revenues D. Ricardo has significantly enriched the classical political economy in terms of the characteristics of the essence of rent, profits and wages.

Ricardo believed that the rent - the result is not "generous" of nature, and its "poverty", lack of rich and fertile plots of land. The rents source lies in the fact that the land is the property of its owners. If the air and water "could be faced with the ownership" and were in limited quantities, "then they, like Earth, would give Rent",

Justifying the process of education of rent, Ricardo refers to the growth of the needs in agricultural products associated with the increase in population) and the process of involving all new and new land in the agricultural turnover.

The rent exists not only when moving from the best lands to the worst. Prerequisites, conditions of its existence - differences in quality, fertility, land location, their degree of cultivation. The rent may also take place in cases where the land is occupied and requires all the great cost of labor and capital. The rent is always paying for the use of the Earth only because the amount of land is not impossible, but its quality is different.

Ricardo's rental theory has practical importance. Substituted English classic positions and conclusions were directed against the establishment of high duties on bread.

Ricardo's rent theory helps to understand his interpretation of the relationships and trends of major income: wages, profits, rent.

At the beginning of his work, in the chapter "On the cost", Ricardo whimsized with Smith, which was considered that the wage increase leads to a change in the cost and price of products produced. The cost of goods, spoke Ricardo, depends not on the value of remuneration for work, but on the amount of labor necessary for the production of goods; It is caused by the amount of labor embodied in it.

Considering the relationship between the amounts of profit and earnings of workers, Ricardo comes to the conclusion that the growth of the nominal wage leads to a decrease in profits, for wages and profit of antagonistic are in converse of each other. "The increase in wages does not increase the prices of goods, but invariably lowers profits." "All that increases wages, it is necessary to reduce profits."

According to Ricardo, the main trend characterizing the dynamics of income is as follows: With the development of society, the real wage remains unchanged, the rent is growing, and the level of profit falls.

Theoryreproduction

Ricardo recognized the "law of markets SEI", i.e., the dogma on the uncrucified and equilibrium state of the economy in full employment. In particular, as it were, in recognition of the "law of SEI" he wrote: "Products are always bought for products or services; Money serve only by Meril, with which this exchange is made. Some goods can be made in unnecessary quantities, and the market will be overflowed to such an extent, which will not even be reimbursed by the capital that expended on this product. But it cannot happen simultaneously with all the goods. "

Theory"Comparativecosts »

Ricardo was proposed the theory of "comparative costs" (comparative advantages), which became the theoretical basis of Frituers' policy (free trade) and in modern versions used to substantiate and develop the so-called "open economy" policy.

The general meaning of this concept is that if the governments of various countries do not impose any restrictions on foreign trade with each other, each country's economy begins to gradually specialize in the production of those goods, the manufacture of which requires smaller working hours. Free trade allows countries to consume no less product than to specialization, minimizing the costs of the working time required to create this volume of goods. Being a follower of Smith and Malthus, Ricardo made a significant contribution to the development and clarification of various specific problems of economic theory.

2.4 Jean Batist Say: "The Treatise of Political Economy"

J.B. Say (1767-1832) was the largest representative of the classic school in France, a merchant and an entrepreneur, a scientist and a professor of industrial economy - known as a popularized work of the founders of the classical school, the creator of his own, subjective concept of value (cost). Main work J.B. SEA - "Treatise of political economy, or a simple statement of the method, which are formed, are distributed and consumed by wealth" (1803).

His concepts are more than the concept of other classics - led to the conclusion of the stability and consistency of the capitalist economy, for which the most violent criticism of representatives of many heretical directions in economic science was awarded - from Marxists to Keynesians.

whatis ansourcevalues?

One of the initial is the situation of SEI on the source of value (value) of goods and services. Unlike A. Smith, who reduced the source of revenues, ultimately, to work (according to the labor theory of value), Say at the head of the corner does not put employment costs, and utility: "Usefulness informs subjects value."

According to the concept of SEA, the performance criterion is useful. Therefore, it should be considered a productive work of artisans and labor of farmers, the work of teachers and the work of doctors.

The material form of the product is important, but the result of activity is important. As a result of production activities, the service does not have to take the form of a real product.

Theoryproductionfactors

The theory of production factors is based on the situation of SEI on the determining role of utility in the formation of value of the goods and multiplying wealth.

J. B. Say the first of the classics clearly and unequivocally formulated the idea that the value of the goods is equal to the amount of wages, profits and rent, i.e. The amount of income of the owners of the production factors used in the manufacture of this product. At the same time, according to Zh.B. Say, every factor of production participates in the production process, providing its service, and therefore contributes to the creation of the value of goods. The magnitude of such a contribution is determined in the market of a specific product. The amount of wages characterizes the contribution of labor, the percentage size is the contribution of capital, the size of land rent is the contribution of the Earth. Entrepreneurial profit comes down to them to the wage of highly qualified labor associated with the organization of production activities, i.e., the effective combination of other factors of production. This type of labor is the labor of the entrepreneur - the French economist attached particular importance. It is entrepreneurs that provide a proposal ready-made goods And there is a demand for production factors, thereby giving employment by working force. Through them, the distribution of wealth is also carried out.

LawmarketsSEA

As part of its theory of sales markets, Say has formulated the law called by his name subsequently. According to the theory of sales markets, SEA, "Sales for products is created by the production itself", i.e. The offer generates demand. These are two equivalent wording of the SEA law.

This law, in turn, leads to the following consequences:

General overproduction is impossible;

What is beneficial for a separate business entity is beneficial for the economy as a whole;

Imports are beneficial for the economy because it is paid by its products;

The social strengths that consume, but do not produce, ruin the economy.

The theory of sales markets SEI led to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe internal stability and sustainability of the capitalist economy. Unemployment and decay of production should be - based on it - to interpret as temporary phenomena, which have no long-term meaning. This point of view on the macroeconomic stability of the market economy was refuted only in the 1930s.

Conclusion

The classic school has developed in the second half of the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. Economists of the classical school who came to the change of mercantilists made a significant contribution to the formation of the foundations of economic science.

The classic school of the main object of study made the sphere of production, and not circulation; revealed the value of labor as the basis and measures of value of all goods as the source of the richness of the Company; proved that the economy should be regulated by the market and has its own laws that are objective, i.e. can not be canceled by nor kings or governments; Revealed sources of income of all sectors of society.

New concepts, provisions, conclusions in one way or another rely on the works and developing precursors, on the terminology developed by them, are systematized and streamlined the previously accumulated theoretical wealth.

The classic school laid a significant foundation for economic theory, which opened the way to further improvement, deepening and development.

The classic school of political economy applies to the number of mature directions of economic thought that left a deep mark in the history of economic exercises. The economic ideas of the classical school did not lose their significance to the present day. The classical direction originated in the XVII century and bloomed in the XVIII and at the beginning of the XIX century. The greatest merit of classics is that they put in the center of the economy and economic research work as creative strength and cost as an embodiment of value, thereby putting the beginning of the labor theory of value. The classic school has become a proclaimer of economic freedom ideas, liberal directions in the economy. Representatives of the classical school developed a scientific idea of \u200b\u200bthe surplus value, profits, taxes, land rental. In the depths of the classic school, in fact, the economic science was originated.

The merits of the classic school:

1. The main object of study, she made the sphere of production, not appeal.

2. Revealed the importance of labor as a basis and measures of value of all goods as the source of the richness of society.

3. It proved that the economy should be regulated by the market and has its own laws that are objective, i.e. Cannot be canceled by nor kings or governments.

4. I revealed sources of income of all sectors of society: entrepreneurs, workers, land owners, bankers, merchants.

Basicideasclassicpoliticaleconomyare:

A person is considered only as an "economic person", which has only one desire - the desire for his own benefit, to improving its position. Morality, culture, customs, etc. Not taken into account.

All parties participating in the economic transaction are free and equal to the law and in the sense of foresightness and prudency.

Each economic entity is fully aware of prices, profits, wages and rent on any market both at the moment and in the future.

The market provides full resource mobility: labor and capital can instantly move to the right place.

Elasticity of wage workers no less than one. In other words, any increase in wages leads to an increase in the number of labor, and any decrease in wages to reduce the number of labor force.

The sole purpose of capitalist is to maximize the capital.

The absolute firmity of money wages takes place on the labor market (its value is determined only by the attitude between supply and demand in the labor market).

The main factor in the increase in wealth is the accumulation of capital. Competition must be perfect, and the economy is free from excessive state intervention. In this case, the "invisible hand" of the market will provide the optimal distribution of resources.

Bibliography

1. Amosova V.V., Gukasyan G.M., Makhovikova G.A. Economic theory. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002. 480.: Il. (Series "Textbooks for universities").

2. Bartenev S.A. History of Economic Thought. M.: Lawyer, 2002.456 p.

3. Bartenev S.A., Economic Theories and Schools, M., 1996.

4. Blag M. Economic thought in retrospect. M.: "Case LTD", 1994.

5. Voitov A.G. History of Economic Thought. Short course: Tutorial. 2nd ed. M.: Publishing House "Dashkov and K O", 2001. 104 p.

6. Galbreit J.K. Economic theories and goals of society. M.: Progress, 1979.

7. Dadalko V.A. World economy: studies. benefit. M.: URAZHA, INTERPRESERVIS, 2001. 592 p.

8. Jean-Marie Albertini, Ahmed Sille. "Understand economic theories." Little guide to large currents, translation from French, M., 1996.

9. Ya S., Rist S. History of economic exercises. M.: Economics, 1995.

10. Kondratyev N.D. Election op. M.: Economics, 1993.

12. Negoshi T. History of economic theory. M.: Aspect - Press, 1995.

13. Yadgarov Ya.S. History of Economic Thought. M., 2000.

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