Non-manufacturing costs include. Analysis of the main economic indicators of the company of any form of ownership. Non-manufacturing expenses - calculation formula

The company, investing in production factors, uses them to produce competitive products.

The monetary expression of the use of economic resources of the company  for the production and sale of products or the provision of services is called the cost of production or the cost of services.

Cost of production (services)  - this is the total cost of the enterprise for the production and sale of products, the costs associated with the provision of services. The cost price reflects all the expenses incurred by the company for living and materialized labor in the form of expenses for raw materials, material, fuel and energy resources, depreciation of fixed assets, and labor remuneration. Cost includes direct material and labor costs, as well as overhead costs for the management and maintenance of the company. The cost of production is a synthetic concept that summarizes the total cost of the enterprise for consumed means of production, wages and payment of services to third-party organizations for the manufacture, transportation and sale of products in cost form (Figure 15).

The specific composition of costs is regulated by law, as this is due to the peculiarities of the tax system and the need to distinguish between the costs of the company by the sources of their reimbursement.

Cost is quantitatively and qualitatively different from cost.

Value and its monetary expression - the price, quantitatively higher than cost.

By economic nature, the cost is close to accounting costs of production and differs significantly from the economic costs of production. Cost reduction is the basis for lower prices, which means the basis of competitiveness is a major source of profit growth.

The traditional policy of the company usually consists in assigning for each product a selling price higher than cost. The difference is profit. But in market conditions, when the company needs to take into account the extreme differentiation of the production and sales process, recognize the usefulness of forecasting, the growing importance of developing an industrial and trading strategy, the concept of cost is filled with more complex content, and therefore today they prefer the concept of “costs”.

The costs of social labor for the production and marketing of products in our society are the social costs of production, which reflect cost  of this product.

The social costs of production are composed of:

• the cost of expended capital goods (in the form of depreciation);
• consumed objects of labor (in the form of raw materials, materials, fuel, etc.);
• the value of the product created by labor for oneself (in the form of wages);
• the value of the product created by labor for society (in the form of the company's net income, expressed in two main forms: profit and tax).

Cost pricethe same is the monetary part of the social costs of production, which is the sum of the costs of the enterprise for the production and marketing of industrial products and services.

Thus, the difference between the cost and the cost of production is that the cost includes, in addition to the past (materialized), all the living (necessary) labor expended on its production, and the cost, except for past labor, is only part of the living.

Numerous costs that form the cost of production, in the practice of planning and accounting for the content and purpose are classified by:

• economic elements;
• costing articles.

The list of these elements and articles is the composition of the cost of production.

Structure  the same cost of production is the ratio of these elements and articles to each other, expressed as a percentage of the total.

Economic item grouping  it is used to determine and maintain the optimal ratio between homogeneous economic costs, living and material labor, the ratio of consumed resources, linking and interconnecting the various sections of the business plan, in compiling material balances, rationing working capital, developing budgets, etc.

In accordance with the cost structure, industries are divided into:

material intensive, the cost of which is dominated by the cost of raw materials (for example, light, food industry);

labor intensiveif wages prevail in the prime cost (for example, coal industry, some engineering industries, for example, instrument making);

energy intensiveif energy costs prevail (e.g. aluminum industry)

capital intensiveif the cost of production is a high proportion of depreciation (for example, the oil industry).

But such a division is rather arbitrary and can change in time.

Structure cost is closely related to the nature of the production of this industry and depends on:

• level of automation and mechanization of production, i.e. an increase in this level causes an increase in labor productivity, which causes a decrease in the share of wages and an increase in the share of material costs;
• specialization and mass production;
• cooperation of enterprises;
• geographical location of the enterprise.

Economic cost elements  - these are economically homogeneous, more indivisible, non-splittable costs, reflect the distribution of costs, regardless of the form of use in the production of a particular type of product and the location of these costs.

Costing Articleson the contrary, they consist of costs that are heterogeneous in the economic sense. Each costing item includes all economic cost elements.

The grouping of costs at cost  costing allows you to identify a specific object and place of costs, to determine the unit cost of production, profit, profitability of products and production.

The composition of the cost of the economic elements of costs (estimated cost of production) is:

1. Raw materials and basic materials (purchased components and semi-finished products), auxiliary materials, fuel from the side, energy from the side.

2. Salary of all employees - labor costs.

3. Deductions: for state social insurance;

• health insurance;
• compulsory property insurance;
• interest on short-term bank loans.

4. Depreciation;

5. Other cash expenses.

Costing articles in a more generalized form are:

1. Raw materials and basic materials minus suitable waste, auxiliary materials, fuel for technological purposes, energy for technological purposes.
2. Salary of workers of the main production, payroll.
3. The costs of maintaining and operating the equipment.
4. Costs of preparation and development of production.
5. Compulsory property insurance payments.
6. Interest deductions for short-term bank loans.
7. Depreciation.
8. Other cash expenses.
9. Depreciation for the full restoration of fixed assets.

10. Shop expenses

total workshop cost

9. General factory expenses  - losses from marriage, other

total production cost

10. Non-manufacturing  (business) expenses

total (commercial) cost price

Classification of production costs - this is a dismemberment and combining into separate groups of various costs of production homogeneous on a certain basis. The cost of production on a scale of industry is determined by a huge number of different costs, bringing them into a few groups is a prerequisite for planning and accounting for the cost of industrial products.

The classification of production costs is necessary to determine the cost structure; calculation of the cost of individual units of production or production operations; determination of costs for individual workshops and production sites.

Depending on the nature of participation  in the production process, costs are grouped into production and non-production.

TO production  all types of costs related to one degree or another with the manufacturing process.

Non-manufacturingcosts include the costs of selling products: packaging, packaging, delivery of products to the station (marina) of departure and others, as well as deductions for scientific and technical work, expenses for technical propaganda, training, and the like.

Cost grouping by economic elements  reflects their distribution by economic content, regardless of the form of their use for the production of a particular type of product and the place where these costs are incurred. This grouping of costs is used in the preparation of cost estimates for production and is used in planning cost reduction, preparation of material balances, rationing of working capital.

Cost grouping by costing articles  reflects their composition depending on the direction of expenditures (direct production or its maintenance) and the place of occurrence (main production, auxiliary services, serving farms). This grouping is used when calculating the cost of production, to determine the planned and actual cost of production, to determine the planned and actual cost of certain types of products, both for the whole enterprise and for individual workshops.

Cost estimate feature  for production is that each of its elements contains all the relevant costs, regardless of where and how these costs are incurred within the enterprise. The estimate includes all costs of the main and auxiliary production, including the costs associated with the development of new industries (new products), which are subject to reimbursement from the fund for the development of new equipment.

Estimation of cost estimates for the enterprise begins with the development of workshop estimates and, first of all, estimates of auxiliary workshops. This is due to the fact that the preparation of an estimate of the production of any main workshop cannot be completed if the costs of auxiliary workshops providing it with services are not previously determined.

It is impossible to make a factory-wide cost estimate by simply summing up the workshop estimates, since in this case it will include recurring amounts in the form of in-plant turnover.

What is it for? grouping by calculation item? In order to achieve greater results with lower costs, it is not enough to know the cost structure (cost structure). It is also necessary to consider or, as they say in such cases, calculate the cost of certain types of products, individual products. This is necessary so that the planned value of the cost of production (planned cost) is accurately known within the enterprise. At costing products  an estimate of the workshop costs (for each workshop separately) and an estimate of factory costs.

Knowing the total amount of workshop expenses and the annual amount of the basic salary of production workers in this workshop, we can determine the rate of workshop expenses. To do this, the amount of workshop expenses should be divided by the amount of the main salary and multiplied by 100.

The rate of factory expenses is determined in the same way as the rate of workshop expenses, but instead of the sum of workshop expenses, the amount of factory expenses is taken, and instead of the salary of production workers, the main salary of production workers as a whole for the enterprise is taken.

By the method of allocating costs to costproducts when calculating products, they are grouped into direct and indirect.

Direct  - these are costs directly related to the manufacture of products and attributable to their individual types or orders. These include: materials, fuel, energy, salary, and more. Indirect  - these are the costs associated with the operation of the workshop or the enterprise as a whole. Therefore, they cannot be directly attributed to the cost of individual products. These costs are distributed between products indirectly according to some conditional attribute. These include: expenses for the maintenance and operation of equipment, workshop and factory expenses.

According to the attitude to the production process  costs are divided into the main  and waybills. The main costs are expenses directly related to the manufacturing process itself, the performance of work and the provision of services to outside and for in-plant needs. These include: materials, fuel, energy, salary, and more.

Overhead costs are the costs of the enterprise associated with the organization, management of production, as well as all non-production and non-production costs and losses.

According to the degree of dependence on the growth of production volumes  costs are divided into proportional  (conditionally variable) and disproportionate  (conditionally constant).

TO proportional  include costs that are directly dependent on the volume of production. These may include the costs of raw materials and basic materials, basic salaries and more. TO disproportionate(constant) include costs, the absolute value of which does not change or does not change slightly when the volume of production changes (expenses for heating and lighting of premises, wages of shop and administrative and managerial personnel, depreciation deductions, etc.).

Depending on the degree of generalization  (legalization) costs are divided into simple (elementary) and complex (complex).

Simple article costs  costing consists of one economic element (raw materials, wages, social security contributions, etc.). Comprehensive Articles  (expenses for the maintenance and operation of equipment, workshop expenses, factory expenses, etc.) consist of several elements that are economically heterogeneous but have the same production purpose.

Depending on the time of occurrence and assignment  the cost of expenses are divided into expenses: of the current period; future periods and upcoming expenses.

Under current period expenses  the costs associated with the production and sale of products of a given period are understood.

Deferred expenses  include those that, although they arise in a given period, are subject to attribution to the cost of certain types of products within a specified period. These are expenses for the development of new types of products produced at the cost of production, startup costs and so on.

Depending on the type of product, its complexity, type and nature of the organization of production at industrial enterprises, the following basic methods of accounting and actual costing  products: regulatory; alternate; custom, detailed.

Regulatory Accounting Method, the most important elements of which are the timely detection of deviations from the norms and accounting for changes in norms, is a method that allows the efficient use of accounting data for the operational management of the enterprise. The normative accounting method is used, as a rule, in the mass and mass production of diverse and complex products, consisting of a large number of parts and assemblies (at sewing, shoe, knitting, furniture and other enterprises). The normative method of accounting for production costs allows us to timely identify and establish the reasons for the deviation of actual costs from the current norms of basic costs and estimates of the costs of servicing production and management. With the normative method, a systematic account of changes in existing norms should be carried out. This accounting is based on notifications of changes in standards and is used to clarify regulatory estimates.

The basis for calculating the actual cost of products under the regulatory accounting method are standard costing(normative estimates) compiled on the basis of the cost standards in force at the beginning of the month. These estimates are used to determine the actual cost of production, to evaluate defective goods, work in progress (during inventories) and economic analysis. Regulatory calculations are made for all types of products manufactured by the enterprise. In the manufacture of certain types of products in various versions, the standard cost is determined for each embodiment separately. The actual cost of production is calculated by adding to the standard cost or deducting from it deviations from the norms and changes in norms revealed in the reporting period. In the preparation of normative and reporting costing, a unified nomenclature of expense items should be applied.

The alternate accounting method is used in enterprises with a mass production that is homogeneous in terms of the initial material and the nature of processing, in which physicochemical and thermal production processes prevail, and the conversion of raw materials into finished products under continuous and, as a rule, short technological process or a series of sequential production processes , each of which or group of which are separate independent redistributions (phases, stages) of production. The alternate accounting method is also used in industries with the integrated use of raw materials.

With the alternate accounting method, production costs are taken into account in each workshop (redistribution, phase, stage), including, as a rule, the cost of semi-finished products manufactured in the previous workshop. In this regard, the cost of production of each subsequent workshop is composed of the costs incurred by it and the cost of semi-finished products.

Custom cost accounting method  for the production and calculation of the cost of production is used in individual and small-scale production of complex products, as well as in the production of pilot, experimental, repair and other works. In individual and small-scale production, the application of this method should be combined with the use of the basic elements of regulatory accounting.

The actual cost of a unit of products or work is determined after the execution of the order by dividing the amount of costs by the number of products (products) manufactured by this order. Upon delivery of products (products) to the customer or warehouse in parts before the end of the order, in general, the delivered products (products) are evaluated at the planned or actual cost of homogeneous products manufactured earlier, taking into account changes in their design, technology and production conditions.

At detail method of cost accounting  production can be carried out as semi-finished or semi-finished methods. The conditions for the use of one or another option are established in industry instructions. At prefabricated  variant costs for the manufacture of parts, semi-finished products and assemblies are taken into account in the shops in the section of expense items. By prefabricated  the cost of semi-finished products of own production is formed when they are transferred from the workshop to the workshop and the costs of their manufacture are taken into account in the workshops with the integrated article “Semi-finished products of own production”.

The cost of production is an integral part of the price of the goods, and, as a rule, most of it, therefore, the reduction in cost serves as the basis for lowering prices of goods as the necessary quantity of these goods accumulates.

Reducing the cost of production increases the profits of the enterprise, and therefore those funds that are formed at the expense of profit and are used to improve working conditions, pay bonuses, and so on.

The main ways to reduce the cost of production is:

• reduction in the cost of raw materials, materials, fuel per unit of product;
• respect for cars, mechanisms. Their modernization reduces the costs associated with their use;
• increase in labor productivity, which especially affects the general shop and factory costs per unit of output;
• reduction of general shop and general production costs by improving the management structure, mechanization of managerial work.

Numerous factors affecting the level and dynamics of production costs can be reduced to the following groups:

1. Factors that improve the use of means of labor (fixed assets);
2. Factors that improve the use of objects of labor (working capital);
3. Factors that improve the use of labor itself;
4. Factors that improve the organization of production, labor and management.

Economic assessment of cost reduction  based on the calculation of the following indicators:

• Estimated production costs (by economic elements of costs);
• Cost of all marketable products (by calculation item);
• The cost of a unit of the most important products according to costing items;
• Costs per 1 ruble of marketable products. The lower this indicator, the lower the cost, more profit from the implementation of TP, higher profitability.
• Cost reduction per 1 ruble of marketable products.

Scheduled costing of production costs

The calculation of the cost of production is calculated on the basis of the projected annual production volume, progressive norms for the consumption of raw materials, materials, fuel and energy, planning and procurement prices, the wages fund of workers, estimates of the costs of maintaining and operating equipment and estimates of workshop costs.

Technique of costing.

1. The cost of raw materials, materials, fuel, energy are accepted according to the calculation results.

2. The main and additional wages of the main production workers are accepted according to the calculation results.

3. The unified social tax is calculated as the product of the UST rate on the sum of the basic and additional wages of production workers.

4. The costs of the preparation and development of production include the costs of the development of new industries, workshops and units (starting costs); the costs of preparing and mastering the production of new types of products and new technological processes; deductions to the fund for the development of new technology; deductions to the bonus fund for the creation and implementation of new equipment.

The indicated costs are accepted in the amount of 10% of the sum of the basic and additional wages of production workers.

5. The costs of maintaining and operating the equipment are taken as a result of the calculation.

6. Shop expenses are accepted according to the calculation results.

7. General factory expenses account for 2-2.5% of the workshop cost. In calculations, 2.5% are accepted.

8. Other operating expenses include deductions for research and experimental work, maintenance of temporary roads and thoroughfares, etc. In the calculations taken equal to 20% of factory expenses.

9. Non-manufacturing costs include costs associated with packaging and labeling of products, their delivery to the station or pier of departure, loading into wagons and ships, etc. The value of these costs is taken equal to 1.5% of production costs.

Planned costing of production costs 1 ton

No. p / p	Name of cost items	Price, rub.	Per unit of production	For annual release
amount	Amount	amount	Amount
AND	B
	Preset:
1.	Raw materials, basic materials and semi-finished products				-
2.	Returnable Waste (-)				-
3.	Total: Set minus waste and scrap				-
	Redistribution costs:
4.	Supporting materials				-	8,4
5.	Energy (of all kinds) for technological purposes			26336966,5	-	114508,55
6.	Unit labor costs:
6.1.	Basic salary			444576,56	-	1932,94
6.2.	Additional salary			35671,26	-	155,09
10.	Unified social tax			96049,564	-	417,6068
11.	Overhead costs including:
11.1	Depreciation of fixed assets				-	1283234,783
11.2	Repair and maintenance costs of fixed assets				-	4537243,478
11.3	Other expenses of the unit				-	11008513,04
12.	Total redistribution costs				-
13.	Shop expenses			26507509,5	-	115250,0414
14.	General factory expenses				-	2515,35
15.	Other operating expenses				-	503,07
16.	Non-manufacturing costs				-	329,565
23.	Total total cost of products sold in the accounting period			5053333,33	-	36607,14286

Variable expenses \u003d 3782950480-6785000 + 1932 + 26336966.5 * 0.5 + 444576.56 * 0.4 + 35671.26 * 0.4 + 96,049.564 * 0.4 + 1043566000 * 0.45 + 75800 * 0 , 9 + 23141200 * 0.5 + 578530 * 0.5 + 115706 * 0.5 \u003d 4271157052 rub.

Fixed costs \u003d 263 366 966.5 * 0.5 + (444 576.56 + 35 671.26 + 96049.564) * 0.6 + 295144000 + 1042566000 * 0.5 + 2531958000 + (23141200 + 578530 + 115706) * 0.95 + 75800 * 0.1 \u003d 3437225506 rub.

Calculation of net profit.

In business practice, distinguish between profit from sales, gross profit, and profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise (net profit).

Gross profit is the financial result of all industrial and economic activities and includes:

1) profit from sales of products;

2) profit from the sale of property;

3) non-operating income.

Net profit ( State of emergency) can be determined by the following formula:

VP  - gross profit, rubles .;

N  - income tax, rubles .;

Mon  - other taxes, rub.

8.1. Calculation of profit from sales.

In the term paper, the profit from the sale of products (P) is calculated according to the following formula:

(8.2)

where Ts - wholesale price of products, rubles / t;

WITH  - unit cost of production, rubles / t;

In year.  - annual volume of production in physical terms.

The wholesale price of a unit of production is determined on the basis of the base cost of a unit of production and the target profitability of products, taken equal to 12%.

C \u003d 41,000 rubles / t

P \u003d (41000-36607.143) * 230,000 \u003d 1010357143 rubles.

8.2. Calculation of net profit.

Since in the term paper non-operating income and losses are not taken into account, net profit (PE) can be defined as the difference between the profit from sales of products (P) and the amount of taxes (N):

PE \u003d P - N (8.3)

In the course work should take into account two taxes:

1) property tax (2%);

2) income tax (at the basic rate of 24%).

Calculation of property tax.The tax base is the value of property (production assets (PF)), consisting of fixed assets and working capital.

Property tax at a rate of 2% will be equal to:

NI \u003d 6917.724 million rubles. * 0.02 \u003d 138.354 million rubles.

Profit tax calculation.  The object of taxation is profit. The basic rate is 24%. Taxable income is determined by:

NP \u003d P - NI

NP \u003d1010.357 million rubles-138.354 million rubles \u003d million rubles

Thus, income tax will be equal to:

N \u003d 0.24

H \u003d877.562 million rubles * 0.24 \u003d 210.615 million rubles

and net profit will be equal to:

PE \u003d P - NI - N.

State of emergency\u003d 1010.357 million rubles. -138.354 million rubles - 210.615 million rubles \u003d

=RUB 666.947 million

9. DETERMINING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE PROJECT AND TERMS OF RETURN OF THE LOAN BY THE CASH FLOW METHOD

To assess the effectiveness of the project, the following indicators are used:

NPV  - net present value

IRR  - internal rate of return (project)

a) net present value ( NPV)

For determining NPV  it is necessary to compare the results (profit) and costs:

(9.1)

a i  - coefficient of reduction by time factor, determined by the formula:

d  - discount rate (reduction standard), shares

i \u003d t - t p  (difference in years of loan payment).

t -the year for which the conversion factor is calculated.

t p -settlement year.

Costs are divided into current (cost) and capital, so we can write:

(9.3)

NPV\u003e 0  - the project is effective

NPV< 0   - the project is not effective

NPV \u003d 0  - It is impossible to say clearly and it is necessary to assess the risks of the project.

b) Internal rate of return ( IRR)

For determining IRR  we will write NPV:

, (9.4)

(9.5)

or write:

Finding from this equation the value dwe get the internal rate of return of the project ( IRR).

NPV \u003d 0 → d \u003d IRR

Line number	Real money flow	Time period number
	From operating activities
	Volume of sales	230 000	230 000	230 000	230 000	230 000	230 000	230 000	230 000	230 000
	Price	41 000	41 000	41 000	41 000	41 000	41 000	41 000	41 000	41 000
	Revenue (1-2)	9 430 000 000	9 430 000 000	9 430 000 000	9 430 000 000	9 430 000 000	9 430 000 000	9 430 000 000	9 430 000 000	9 430 000 000
	Variable costs (raw materials, materials, etc.)	4 271 157 052	4 271 157 052	4 271 157 052	4 271 157 052	4 271 157 052	4 271 157 052	4 271 157 052	4 271 157 052	4 271 157 052
	Fixed costs	3 437 228 806	3 437 228 806	3 437 228 806	3 437 228 806	3 437 228 806	3 437 228 806	3 437 228 806	3 437 228 806	3 437 228 806
	Depreciation of buildings	56 523 000	56 523 000	56 523 000	56 523 000	56 523 000	56 523 000	56 523 000	56 523 000	56 523 000
	Depreciation of equipment	218 621 000	218 621 000	218 621 000	218 621 000	218 621 000	218 621 000	218 621 000	218 621 000	218 621 000
	Loan interest
	Profit before tax (3 + 4-5-6-7-8-8-9)	1 446 470 142	1 446 470 142	1 446 470 142	1 446 470 142	1 446 470 142	1 446 470 142	1 446 470 142	1 446 470 142	1 446 470 142
	Property tax	132 795 000	132 795 000	132 795 000	132 795 000	132 795 000	132 795 000	132 795 000	132 795 000	132 795 000
	Taxable income (10-11)	1 313 675 142	1 313 675 142	1 313 675 142	1 313 675 142	1 313 675 142	1 313 675 142	1 313 675 142	1 313 675 142	1 313 675 142
	Income Tax (0.24 * 12)
	Projected Net Income (12-13)	840 069 142	840 069 142	840 069 142	840 069 142	840 069 142	840 069 142	840 069 142	840 069 142	840 069 142
	Depreciation (7 + 8)	275 144 000	275 144 000	275 144 000	275 144 000	275 144 000	275 144 000	275 144 000	275 144 000	275 144 000
	Net cash flow from operations (R-Z) (14 + 15)	1 115 213 142	1 115 213 142	1 115 213 142	1 115 213 142	1 115 213 142	1 115 213 142	1 115 213 142	1 115 213 142	1 115 213 142
	From investment activity
	Buildings and constructions	3 206 990 000
	Machines, equipment, tools, inventory	3 432 740 000
	Total investments in fixed assets (17 + 18 + 19 + 20)	6 639 730 000
	Working capital gain
	Total investment	6 639 730 000
	Cash Flow (RZK)	-5 524 516 858
	Discounted Cash Flow	-5 524 516 858	1 013 830 129	921 663 754	837 876 140	761 705 582	692 459 620	629 508 745	572 280 677	520 255 161
	Accumulated discounted cash flow	-5 524 516 858	-4 510 686 729	-3 589 022 975	-2 751 146 835	-1 989 441 254	-1 296 981 634	-667 472 889	-95 192 212	425 062 950

Conclusion: the project will pay off in 7.5 years by 2008.

1.13 calculation of non-production costs

Non-manufacturing costs include all costs associated with the sale of products, as well as some other types of expenses (for example, expenses for packaging products, for transportation of products to the destination station or to the consumer).

  - coefficient taking into account the ratio of non-production costs to production costs.

According to the source data, the coefficient taking into account the ratio of non-production costs to production costs () is 0.15.

Non-manufacturing expenses, in accordance with the formula (1.22):

1.14 calculation of the total cost

The total cost of production (work) is the sum of the costs of its production and sale, i.e.

,

where is the production cost of products (works);

  - non-manufacturing costs for the production of products (works).

The total cost is calculated by the formula (1.23):

  2. Evaluation of the effectiveness of real (capital-forming) investment projects

2.1 the Essence of the economic efficiency of the investment project

The methodology for assessing the economic efficiency of an investment project is to analyze the overall economic efficiency and break-even analysis of the investment project, as well as to formulate conclusions and recommendations on the feasibility of implementing this investment project.

Assessing the economic efficiency of the investment project allows you to: really assess the feasibility of the investment project, its consequences if implemented, and also allows you to compare the attractiveness of different investment projects (or different options for one project).

The main principle used in assessing the effectiveness of investments is that it is necessary to compare costs and revenues that arise at different times. So, the costs of the project are stretched in time, and project income, in addition to stretching in time, usually arise after the implementation of the costs. Evaluation of effectiveness consists in comparing income and costs arising from the implementation of the project. But since costs and revenues are different, it becomes necessary to use such a thing as the value of money in time. It means that a ruble received today costs more than a ruble received tomorrow, i.e. the later the money arrives, the more “damage” will be and there are reasons for this:

1. Inflation.

2. Percentage. The ruble received earlier can be put into the bank in order to return it with interest after some time.

3. The risk. There is always a danger that someone who has to pay the ruble after some time will refuse to do so.

In this regard, it is necessary to determine either the present (current) value of future income and expenses by discounting, or to determine the future value of today's income and expenses using the build-up factor.

Discounting is the opposite of the calculation of compound interest. The process of growth of the principal amount of the deposit due to the accumulation of interest is called the accrual of compound interest, and the amount received as a result of the accumulation of interest is called the future value of the deposit amount after the period for which the calculation is made. The initial deposit amount is called the present value.

  - discount factor;

  - building multiplier,

where is the rate of return;

  - time for which the calculation is made.

A methodological approach to assessing the effectiveness of an investment project allows us to determine whether future income from investments compensates for the initial and future costs necessary for the implementation of the investment project. Assessment of the economic efficiency of the investment project consists of two stages: assessment of the overall economic efficiency and analysis of the breakeven of the investment project.

2.2 Evaluation of the economic efficiency of investment projects

To assess the overall economic efficiency of investment projects, a system of the following indicators is used:

1) integral effect ();

2) rate of return ();

4) payback period ().

The definition of these indicators is based on the definition of cash flow. Often, the implementation of investment projects over the same or several time periods is characterized by both income and costs. If during the year the income exceeds the cost, we can talk about a positive cash flow for the year; if costs exceed revenues, then we can call them cash outflows or negative cash flow for the year. Thus, the annual cash flow () shows the difference between two financial flows: going to the company and leaving it during the year.

The cash flow for each year of the implementation of the investment project is calculated by the formula:

where: - revenue from sales of products;

,

where: - annual output of the i-th type;

- unit price of the i-th type;

  - the number of types of products;

- the cost of production of products sold per year;

where: - the cost of materials and components;

  - net production costs, including the wages of production workers, fuel, energy, equipment operation;

  - depreciation for full restoration (renovation);

  - change in stock of products in the warehouse of the company for the year;

  - conditionally fixed costs (administrative and administrative expenses)

- sales costs;

- non-operating profit;

,

where: - non-operating income (interest on deposits with banks, income from operations with securities, obtaining insurance and fines, etc.);

- non-operating expenses (payment of interest on loans and credits, insurance premiums, losses from non-productive activities, etc.);

  - income taxes, (currently the corporate income tax rate is 35%),

- depreciation of fixed assets credited to the account of the enterprise,

  - capital investments in fixed assets made by the enterprise.

- capital investments in current assets

Capital investments in fixed assets include investments in equipment, constructions and devices, buildings, expensive equipment, etc. Capital investments in current assets include stocks of materials, fuel, purchased semi-finished products, spare parts, expenses for future periods of the enterprise, as well as investments in low-value equipment.

The cash flow calculation formula for each year of implementation of the investment project (2.1) can be simplified, since:

where: - gross profit,

where: - profit from sales;

where: - retained earnings

where: - net profit.

Thus, formula (2.1) takes the following form:

The basis for calculating the cash flow is the initial (forecasted) data for assessing the economic efficiency of investment projects contained in table 2.1.

Table 2.1 - the Source (projected) data for assessing the economic efficiency of investment projects

	N	Index		reference	unit.	1997	1998		1999		2000		2001	2002
	1	Research costs, design and technological and design work.		TO	million rubles	60	0		0		0		0	0
	2	Costs for the development of production.		TO	million rubles	760	0		0		0		0	0
	3	Costs of acquisition, delivery, equipment installation and commissioning		TO	million rubles	4366	0		0		0		0	0
	4	Costs for the construction of premises and structures.		TO	million rubles	0	0		0		0		0	0
	5	Costs for the acquisition of working capital required for an investment project		TO	million rubles	0	6469		0		0		0	0
	6	Stocks of raw materials, materials, fuels and semi-finished products		Cob		0	1484		1781		2422		2664	2664
	7	Unfinished production.		Cob		0	4985		5982		8136		8949	8949
	8	The number of workers.		Cz	People	0	320		384		522		574	574
	9	Annual production costs:		AND		0	47691		52458		62755		66645	66645
	10	- Cost of materials		M		0	13556		16267		22123		24336	24336
	11	- wages of workers		Un		0	7110		8532		11604		12764	12764
	12	- deduction for social. Insurance.		Un		0	2738		3286		4468		4915	4915
	13	- the cost of fuel, energy, water.		Un		0	432		518		705		776	776
	14	- the cost of maintaining the equipment.		Un		0	22054		22054		22054		22054	22054
	15	Depreciation on full restoration (renovation)		AND		0	1801		1801		1801		1801	1801
16		Managerial and administrative	Yiwu			15054	15054	15054		15054		15054		15054
17		Distribution costs	Is		million rubles / year	0	0	0		0		0		0
18		Non-operating income.	Vd			0	0	0		0		0		0
19		Non-operating expenses.	VR			0	0	0		0		0		0
20		Deductions for growth working capital and replenishment reserve fund	Po			0	0	0		0		0		0
21		The annual volume of production.	N		pcs / year	0	80000	96000		130560		143616		143616
22		Product price (excluding VAT).	Ts			0,0	0,8	0,8		0,8		0,8		0,8

Cash flow calculation example for 1998:

We calculate the revenue from the implementation of (B) according to the formula (2.2):

.

Gross profit () is determined by the formula (2.5):

.

Profit from sales () is calculated by the formula (2.6):

.

Carrying profit () is calculated by the formula (2.7):

Income tax 35% of:

.

Net profit () is calculated by the formula (2.8):

.

Cash flow () is calculated by the formula (2.9):

.

For the remaining years, the calculation is similar.

Table 2.2 & the calculation of cash flow

Index	Identification	Units ism	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002
Revenues from sales	AT		0	64000	76800	104448	114892,8	114892,8
Annual production costs	AND		0	47691	52458	62755	66645	66645
Gross profit	Pv		0	16309	24342	41693	48248	48248
AUP and marketing costs	Yiwu + Is		0	15054	15054	15054	15054	15054
Profit from sales	Etc		0	1255	9288	26639	33194	33194
Non-operating profit	Mon.		0	0	0	0	0	0
Retained earnings	Pb		0	1255	9288	26639	33194	33194
Income tax	N		0	439,25	3250,8	9323,6	11617,9	11617,9
Net profit	PC		0	815,75	6037,2	17315,3	21576,1	21576,1
Depreciation	AND		0	1801	1801	1801	1801	1801
Capital investments in the main Funds	TO		5186	6469	0	0	0	0
Capital investments in rev. Funds	Cob		0	6469	7763	10558	11613	11613
Cash flow	Dt		-5186	-10321,3	75,2	8558	11764,1	11764,1

2.2.1 Integral effect ()

Using formula (2.9), we calculate the first indicator of overall economic efficiency - the integral effect (). The cash flow calculated by formula (2.9) for each year is summed up and the total cash flow for the duration of the project (n) is found:

The cash flow during the implementation of the project shows the full amount of funds generated on the account of the enterprise during the implementation of the project. However, he does not say anything about the effectiveness of the project, because in it the costs and results are different at the same time and, therefore, are not comparable.

To find the integral effect indicator (), the cash flows calculated by formula (2.9) for each year of the project implementation () are summed up and brought to the time of the start of the project using the discount coefficient:

where: - integral effect;

  - cash flow of the t-th year (see table. 2.2);

  - the rate of time discount (coefficient of bringing different costs at the same time), equal to ours and most foreign literature 0, 1;

  - time for the implementation of the investment project;

Integral effect - allows you to compare the current value of future income from investments with the currently required costs; those. all future investment income is reduced to the initial point in time and compared with investment costs.

The decision-making criterion using the integral effect is the same for any type of investment and organization:

1. If, then the investment project is considered economically viable and should be adopted;

2. If, then the investment project is impractical and should not be accepted.

A positive integral effect means that the current value of income exceeds the current value of costs, and therefore, an increase in the welfare of investors should be expected.

The question may arise whether to accept an investment project, if?

Zero increase in welfare - insufficient reward for the efforts invested in the project. Therefore, with, the project can hardly be considered attractive.

We calculate the integral effect () for 1998 by the formula (2.11):

For the remaining years, the calculation is similar.

The calculation of the integral effect is summarized in table 2.3.

Table 2.3 - Calculation of the integral effect at a discount rate r \u003d 0.1

t	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002	Total
	1.0	0.9091	0.8264	0.7513	0.6830	0.6209	-
Dt	-5186	-10321,3	75,2	8558	11764,1	11764,1	-
W	-5186	-9383	62	6430	8035	7304	7262

2.2.2 Internal rate of return ()

Knowledge of only one indicator of the integral effect is not enough for the adoption of an investment project, because all investments are different both in technical and economic characteristics, and in target settings (both short-term and long-term), and therefore knowledge of the internal rate of return on investment is necessary.

The internal rate of return () is the discount rate at which the amount of discounted income becomes equal to investment investment, i.e. such a discount rate at which the integral effect of the project becomes equal to zero.

The effectiveness of capital investments () should be differentiated depending on the goals facing the investor. In foreign practice, investors, depending on the tasks facing them, divide capital investments into five classes:

Grade 1 - investments in order to maintain market positions aimed at replacing some elements of the production apparatus. In this case . With a lower value, capital investments are not profitable.

Grade 2 - investments with the aim of updating the bulk of production assets, to improve product quality,

Grade 3 - investments with the aim of introducing new technologies, the creation of new enterprises,

Grade 4 - investments with the aim of accumulating financial reserves for the implementation of large investment projects,

Grade 5 - risky capital investments in order to implement projects whose outcome is not completely clear,

To determine the internal rate of return () in the formula (2.11), replace the value () with () and solve the resulting equation:

When solving equation (2.12), the data in table 2.4 are used.

Table 2.4 - the value of the coefficient

t	E
	0,1	0,12	0,15	0,17	0,2	0,22	0,25	0,3	0,4

The calculated value obtained is compared with the internal rate of return required by the investor. If the value is not less than the value required by the investor, then this investment project can be accepted.

If the investment project is fully funded by a bank loan, then the value indicates the upper limit of the bank interest rate at which you can take this loan in order to pay off the proceeds from the implementation of this investment project. Exceeding the maximum limit of the bank interest rate over the value makes this investment project ineffective.

Due to the limited information contained in table 1, the solution to the equation may not be found, then the solution to equation (2.12) can be found graphically. The graphic solution is reduced to finding the intersection point of the curve with the abscissa axis (Fig. 2.1). In this case, if in the range   function, this suggests that investment is unprofitable.

If it turns out that for any of the range   function, this means that true is greater than 0.4, and such capital investments are obviously effective. If a solution exists and it turns out that then the project is effective it should be accepted.

Figure 2.1- Graphical solution of equation (2.12)

As , then the project is effective and should be accepted.

Profitability Index () is the ratio of discounted income to discounted investment costs.

The calculation of the profitability index is carried out according to the formula:

where: - discounted income in the period;

- the discounted amount of investments in the period;

n is the time of implementation of the investment project.

In the numerator of formula (2.13), the amount of income reduced to the moment of the start of the investment project, and in the denominator - the amount of investment discounted to the moment of the beginning of the investment process. In other words, two parts of cash flow are compared here: revenue and investment.

Profitability Index () is closely related to the integral effect ().

If, then and vice versa. When an investment project is considered cost effective. Otherwise () - inefficient.

Profitability index is calculated by the formula (2.13)

Since, the investment project is considered cost-effective.

2.2.4 Payback period ()

Payback period () - the time period from the start of the project, for which investment is covered by the total difference in results and costs. If income is evenly distributed over the years, then the payback period is calculated by dividing the one-time costs by the amount of annual income. When receiving a fractional number, it is rounded up to the nearest integer. If the profit is unevenly distributed, then the payback period is calculated by a direct calculation of the number of years during which the investment will be repaid by the income received:

The form is reflected in the formula (10.9) and summarized in the corresponding columns of the drawing. , (10.9) where, TAi is the technological tolerance. 11. Layout of the mechanical section The “spindle” part (Fig. 1.1) is an assembly unit of a 4-spindle combined head, which in turn is included in the assembly of an automatic line for processing ...

Repair of equipment. Noise protection The fight against noise by reducing it at the source is the most rational. Reduction of mechanical noise can be achieved by improving technological processes and equipment. Calculation of permissible noise level The calculation formula for determining the noise level, if the noise source is in the room, will look like:, (4.1) where B ...

In the process of manufacturing products or providing services (performance of work), the company bears, in addition to the main, that is, production, and non-production expenses (BP). What the second term means and what costs it includes - more on this later.

What is non-manufacturing costs

In the conventional sense, non-production costs are those expenses of the organization that are associated with the sale of goods, as well as other types of associated costs. First of all, we are talking about marketing costs for packaging, packaging, delivery, unloading of products, for advertising, marketing events, etc. Such costs are accounted for separately from production and are to be included in the full cost of products.

Accounting is conducted not on production accounts 20, 23, 25, 26, 29, 28, but on the account. 44 entitled "Selling expenses". At the same time, the distribution of such costs in the price of products is carried out, as a rule, by reflecting individual amounts by elements or articles (depending on the methodology used to calculate cost or calculation). What exactly do BPs consist of?

Non-manufacturing costs include:

• Transportation and procurement costs  - this article includes the costs of loading, unloading products, delivery to the final consumer, security along the route, escort (if necessary), storage, etc.
• Packing costs  - such expenses can be attributed to BP provided that the overstock process is already carried out after the transfer of the SOE (finished product) to the enterprise’s warehouse, and the cost of packaging or packaging under contractual conditions is to be included in the final price of the goods.
• Advertising costs  - this includes the costs of advertising activities in order to promote public relations, marketing research, participation in fairs, exhibitions, the creation of outlets, etc.
• Intermediary Costs  - this article includes payment for the services of trading intermediary companies involved in the implementation of SOEs.
• Warehouse costs  - consist of the costs of maintaining warehouse and retail premises.
• Other  non-manufacturing costs.

Accounting for non-manufacturing expenses

The above-mentioned list of expenses is not closed; each enterprise can independently determine the list depending on the specifics of its activities. Practical accounting principles are contained in Order No. 94n of 10/31/00. BP analytical accounting is organized according to the relevant types, as well as cost items. In this case. 44 refers to the active, that is, the accumulation of expenses is made by debit in correspondence with other accounting accounts, and closing on a loan.

At the end of the month 44 a debit balance is formed. Write-off (partial or full) is made to the sales account 90 in accordance with the accounting methods adopted by the company. The BP amounts allocated per month help to accurately calculate the total cost of goods or services / work sold.

Non-manufacturing expenses - calculation formula

We considered that non-manufacturing costs include sales costs and additional costs. And how to calculate the amount of BP? For calculations, special mathematical formulas are used, one of the components of which will be the percentage of BP distribution.

Non-manufacturing costs - formula

BP \u003d Production cost x K distribution, where:

K distribution is the percentage of BP accepted by the organization.

For example, in the manufacture of a unit of a product, production costs amounted to 20,000 rubles, and the distribution coefficient was taken at a rate of 2%, which means BP \u003d 20,000 x 2% \u003d 400 rubles.

The cost of production is the cost of the enterprise for its production and sale, expressed in cash. Distinguish between planned and actual cost.
   The planned cost of production includes only those costs that, at a given level of technology and organization of production, are necessary for the enterprise. They are calculated on the basis of planned norms for the use of equipment, labor, material consumption.
   Reported cost is determined by the actual costs of manufacturing products.
According to the sequence of formation, technological (operational), workshop, production and full costs are distinguished. Technological cost is used for the economic evaluation of options for new equipment and the choice of the most effective. It includes costs that are directly related to performing operations on a particular product. Shop cost has a wider range of costs: in addition to the technological cost includes costs associated with the organization of work of the workshop and its management. Production costs include the production costs of all workshops involved in the manufacture of products, and the costs of the general management of the enterprise. The full cost includes production costs and non-production (commercial) expenses.
   The allocation of such types of costs as individual and industry average allows you to create a basis for determining selling prices (wholesale). The total cost of an individual enterprise for the production and sale of products is an individual cost. Industry average cost characterizes the cost of production of these products on average in the industry.
   By economic nature, the costs of production and sales of products are divided into expenses by economic elements and calculation items.

The following economic elements are distinguished:

material costs (net of returnable waste);
  labor costs;
  deductions for social needs;
  depreciation of fixed assets;
  other expenses.

  Material costs include:

the cost of raw materials purchased;
  cost of purchased materials;
  the cost of purchased components and semi-finished products;
  the cost of works and services of a production nature paid to third parties;
  the cost of natural raw materials;
  the cost of all types of fuel purchased on the part spent for technological purposes, the generation of all types of energy, heating buildings, transportation;
  the cost of purchased energy of all types spent on technological, energy, motor and other needs.

From the cost of material resources included in the cost of production excludes the cost of traded waste.
Production wastes are understood as residues of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, coolants and other types of material resources that were formed in the process of production of products that lost all or part of the consumer qualities of the original resource. They are sold at a reduced or full price of a material resource, depending on their use.
   Labor costs include labor costs of the main production personnel, including bonuses, incentive and compensatory payments. Social security contributions include mandatory social security contributions, to the employment fund, pension fund, and health insurance.
   Depreciation of fixed assets is the amount of depreciation for the full restoration of fixed assets.
   Other costs - taxes, fees, deductions to extra-budgetary funds, payments on loans within the rates, travel expenses, training and retraining of personnel, rent, depreciation on intangible assets, repair fund, payments on compulsory property insurance, etc. .
   According to the classification of costs by economic elements, it is impossible to determine the costs directly related to the production of a particular product, therefore, they group costs according to calculation items.

  The following cultural articles are distinguished:

Raw materials, minus disposable waste.
  Purchased semi-finished products and components.
  Fuel and energy for technological purposes.
  The basic salary of production workers.
  Additional wages of production workers.
  Deductions for social needs.
  Deterioration of the tool and fixtures of the intended purpose and other special expenses.
  The costs of maintaining and operating technological equipment.
  Shop expenses.
  Factory-wide production costs.

When forming the actual cost, the costs of warranty repairs and warranty services for products with a guaranteed service life, losses from downtime due to internal production reasons, shortages of material assets in production and warehouses in the absence of perpetrators, allowances for disability due to industrial injuries paid on the basis of court decisions, payments to employees released from enterprises and organizations in connection with their reorganization, reduction of h the number of workers and staff, as well as losses from marriage.
Classification of costs by calculation items is the basis of other classifications of costs included in the cost of production.

The following classification features are distinguished in the division of costs:

attitude to the production process;
  allocation to cost;
  dependence on the volume of production.

In relation to the production process, costs can be basic and overhead; by reference to cost - direct and indirect. Depending on the volume of production, expenses can be conditionally variable (proportional) and conditionally constant (disproportionate).

Product Costing

In the costing, material costs of fuel and energy, purchased semi-finished products and components are direct costs and are included in accordance with current consumption rates and product prices. The basic wage of production workers includes wages for the product, calculated according to the complexity or hours worked, and tariff rates. Additional wages take into account payment for unworked time.
   Social security contributions include social insurance, a pension fund, an employment fund, compulsory health insurance and are carried out in accordance with applicable law.
   Depreciation of tools and special-purpose devices and other special expenses are included in the cost of production on a monthly basis depending on the standard service life of the tool and equipment.

The costs of maintaining and operating the equipment are complex costs, they include:

expenses for the maintenance of equipment and remuneration of workers engaged in the maintenance of equipment, mandatory contributions, expenses for repairs and depreciation;
  Compensation for depreciation of low-value and rapidly wearing tools and expenses for their restoration;
  other expenses.

The costs of maintaining and operating the equipment (RSEO) can be included in the cost in proportion to the basic salary of the main production workers (OZPR) or by the estimated (normative) rates calculated on the basis of the coefficient-machine-hours. The estimated rate is the value of the costs of maintaining and operating the equipment per hour of operation of the equipment on which the product is manufactured.
The calculation is made in the following order. For each workshop, technological equipment is combined into homogeneous groups. They establish the value of operating costs per hour of equipment operation. For each product (part, unit), the time spent on processing (operations) for this type of technological equipment is standardized. In accordance with this time, the cost includes the costs of maintaining and operating the technological equipment for this product.

  Shop expenses include:

payroll of shop personnel with deductions;
  maintenance of buildings, structures and equipment for workshop purposes, including property insurance, repairs and depreciation;
  costs of rationalization and inventive work;
  labor protection expenses;
  compensation for depreciation of low value and wearing equipment; other expenses.
   Workshop costs are included in the unit cost in proportion to the sum of the basic salary of the main production workers and the costs of maintaining and operating the equipment.

  Overhead costs include:

costs associated with the management of production, including the payroll fund for managerial personnel with deductions, expenses for business trips, maintenance and servicing of technical equipment and management (CC, communication centers, signaling equipment), payment of consulting, information and audit services, banking services, entertainment expenses;
  training and retraining expenses;
  expenses for tests, experiments, research, maintenance of factory laboratories;
  labor protection expenses;
  expenses for the maintenance of fire, paramilitary and guard;
  general business expenses - insurance, maintenance, current repair and depreciation of fixed assets of general plant purpose;
  taxes, fees and other mandatory contributions.

In general production expenses, expenses for paying interest on bank loans within the rate established by law, as well as depreciation on intangible assets, including patents, licenses, know-how, and software products, are spent.
   Selling (non-manufacturing) expenses include packaging and packaging costs, the cost of delivering products to the departure station, as well as the maintenance of personnel to ensure normal operation of the consumer within the prescribed period.
   Commercial non-manufacturing costs are calculated as a percentage of production costs (3-7%).
  Costing Methods
Calculation methods - a calculation method depending on the calculation unit. There are 2 groups of calculation methods: preliminary calculation methods and production calculation methods.

The first group of methods includes:

unit cost method;
  aggregate method;
  point method;
  parametric method.

  The second group of methods:

custom;
  alternate;
  normative.

Unit Cost Method. For a significant number of types of engineering products, there is a relationship (linear, power) between one of the parameters of the machines and the cost of their manufacture.

S \u003d Syi * ni,

where Syi is the unit cost of the existing structure per unit of parameter, rub .; ni is the value of the determining parameter of the new design.
   In mechanical engineering, the unit costs of a unit mass of a structure (metal-cutting machines, steam turbines) are most developed; in the electrical industry - from technical parameters (power of electrical machines, etc.).
   Aggregate method. On its basis, the cost is determined as the sum of the costs of the production of individual structural parts and assemblies, the value of which is known. On a similar principle, a unified system of automation equipment - GSP.
   The ball method consists in evaluating with the help of points each technical and economic indicator of the product, which is associated with certain consumer properties of the new design. Such an assessment is carried out according to special rating scales, in which the number of points depends on the level of a particular product quality indicator.
   The parametric method allows you to find the cost based on the relationship between the value of the complex technical parameters of similar products and the cost of their production. Such dependencies make it possible to build correlation models that establish the corresponding relationships in mathematical form.
The custom calculation method is mainly used in individual and small-scale production at engineering, instrument-making enterprises that produce non-repeating copies or small batches of products. The essence of the custom method is that production costs are taken into account for individual orders. The actual cost of the order is determined at the end of the manufacture of products or work related to this order, by summing all costs. To calculate the cost of a unit of production, the total amount of costs on the order is divided by the number of manufactured products. The method has a drawback: the execution of the order usually does not coincide in time with the calendar periods accepted in the plan, and this leads to significant fluctuations in the cost of products of the same name issued in different months.
   The alternate method of calculation is used at enterprises in the metallurgical, chemical, oil, textile, paper and other industries (in industries with a repeating product processing technology that is homogeneous with respect to the source material and technology). Redistribution is part of the process. Cost is determined by individual redistribution of the process. Alternating costing is especially necessary in cases where the products of individual processing (semi-finished products) are supplied to other enterprises. The normative method of calculation is mainly used in enterprises with mass and mass production in mechanical engineering and instrument making.
   Regulatory estimates are based on reasonable consumption rates for all calculation items, the actual cost is determined on the basis of deviations from the normative. The method is used in all sectors of production both for the purpose of calculating and for monitoring costs.

Product price. Profit

Price is a monetary expression of the value of a unit of goods.

Price performs 4 main functions:

accounting;
  distribution;
  stimulating;
  regulatory.

The accounting function of the price is implemented in proportion to the value of the goods, distribution - in the distribution of national income, stimulating - in stimulating scientific and technological progress and development of production, regulatory - in regulating supply and demand. In practice, several price classifications are poured:

turnover service;
  by territory of operation;
  by time of action;
  according to the degree of freedom from the influence of the state in determining them;
on the distribution of transportation costs.

The turnover service distinguishes between wholesale prices of enterprises, selling prices of manufacturers, retail prices, purchase prices, and tariffs. The wholesale price of the enterprise includes the full cost and profit.
   The selling price is based on the wholesale price including VAT (value added tax) and excise tax (on excisable goods).
   The retail price is the selling price, taking into account trade margins (margins), which include the costs of trade organizations, profit and value added tax of trade services. Figure 1 shows the formation of the retail price.

Total cost
+
   _______Profit_______
   Wholesale price of the enterprise
+
   VAT
+
   ______[Excise]______
   Company selling price
+
   ___________ Trading allowance __________
   Retail price

Purchase prices are prices (wholesale) at which agricultural products are regulated by collective farms, state farms, farmers and the population. Prices are contractual in nature, their difference from vacation and retail is that they include VAT and excise tax, because they are not included in the cost of material and technical resources acquired by agriculture. Tariffs are divided into freight and passenger transport tariffs and paid services to the population.
   Classification of prices according to the territory of action distinguishes single (zone) and regional (zonal) prices. Single prices are set and regulated by federal authorities (gas, electricity). Regional prices are regulated by local authorities (utilities, purchase prices, tariffs for paid services to the population.
   Classification of prices by time of action divides them into constant (relative to a certain period of time), temporary, seasonal, stepwise, “for a period”. Currently, there are no constant prices in the domestic economy, because the longest period of their action is determined by the level of inflation. Temporary prices are set for the period of development of new products, seasonal prices are used in industries processing agricultural products. Step prices are associated with the stages of a product’s life cycle, reaching extremely high values \u200b\u200bduring a period of growth and a sharp increase in demand for a new, “pioneer” product. Prices for the period are currently acting as contract prices, if there is a contract for the sale of any product. The conclusion of a contract for the next term implies a change. A variety of contract prices are contract prices.
The degree of freedom of prices from the influence of the state in determining them distinguishes free prices, price regulation and fixed prices. Free prices are formed on the market under the influence of supply and demand, regulated prices are also formed as a result of market fluctuations, but the state either directly restricts them or regulates profitability. Fixed prices are set by federal governments for a limited range of goods.
   The classification of prices according to the distribution of transport costs is called a franking system (“free” - free from payment). The essence of the system is that the cost of transporting the product to the destination indicated in “free” is borne by the supplier of the product, and the rest is borne by the buyer.

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