China: foreign policy. Basic principles, international relations. The development of Chinese economic thought at the turn of the XX – XXI centuries Project China history of the 20 XXI century
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Topic of the article: | China at the end of the 20th century |
| Rubric (thematic category) | History |
I. Renewal of transformations in 1992 ᴦ.
After the events in Tiananmen Square in June 1989 ᴦ. the impression was that the reforms were over. Censorship has been reinforced again, dozens of dissidents have been arrested, and leftists have become more active.
Western sanctions against human rights violations in China proved ineffective and were ended. The period of uncertainty lasted two years. It would seem that there is no hope for a change in policy. Moreover, in 1991 ᴦ. Deng Xiaoping resigned from his last official post as Chairman of the Military Council of the CPC Central Committee; he was already 87 years old. But it was soon confirmed that he still retains a leading position in the country.
Spring 1992 ᴦ. Deng Xiaoping travels to Shanghai, Wuhan and the south, where he visits special economic zones. During the trip, Dan spoke for the first time about the critical importance of restarting market reforms; this became a signal - the resistance of the Levacs was easily broken.
In October 1992 ᴦ. the XIV Congress of the CPC took place. The new party leader Jiang Zemin, who had already strengthened his position, made a report at the congress. He gave the signal for the resumption of market reforms. Οʜᴎ boiled down to the following:
1. Already in 1992 ᴦ. large-scale price liberalization began; the centralized system of state distribution of resources was abolished. As a result, already in 1993, only 5% of goods in China were sold at fixed state prices. Free grain prices were introduced; in 1993, only 10% of all agricultural products in China were sold at government prices. These were key measures that the Chinese leadership could not decide on for a long time.
2.From 1992 ᴦ. China introduced double the state budget: regular and development budget. The first is replenished at the expense of taxes, the second - at the expense of non-tax revenues: it goes to the needs of reforms.
3. In 1994 ᴦ. a tax reform was carried out in the PRC: the rates of the single income tax on enterprises were reduced to 33% (from 55%); low-margin industries are taxed at a two-year cut to give them time to transform. 15% of taxes began to be returned to enterprises to replenish working capital.
4. In 1994 ᴦ. installed single, floating exchange rate yuan; in the PRC, it is prohibited to apply any foreign currencies, all foreign exchange transactions came under the control of the state.
5. In the same 1994 ᴦ. the law on foreign trade was adopted: the state monopoly was abolished as a whole; now enterprises could independently enter the external market. The state monopoly remained on only 16 product names.
February 19, 1997 ᴦ. Deng Xiaoping, the "father of reforms", died. At the same time, by that time, Jiang Zemin had sufficiently strengthened his position to continue the reforms in the absence of the patriarch. In September 1997 ᴦ. the 15th Congress of the CPC took place. He confirmed the previous strategy and adopted an ambitious "Public Sector Modernization Program".
State-owned enterprises provided only] / 3 of gross domestic product, but absorbed the lion's share of capital investment and government funding. The state was in charge of 100% of the entire infrastructure of the country (railways, aviation, energy,; ligature, post office), approximately 90% of all banks, metallurgy, chemical enterprises, 60% of mechanical engineering and construction firms, more than half of all foreign trade. At the same time, about half of the enterprises were unprofitable, the losses were paid off at the expense of the treasury.
The congress made a decision: to leave only one thousand enterprises in state ownership, mainly the main infrastructure facilities. Οʜᴎ should turn into corporations with broad economic independence, adapted to operate in market conditions. All others (about 17 thousand) must themselves determine the form of management: corporatization, lease of property or sale of it to private hands.
This was not an easy decision as it involved removing major obstacles to reform.
Spring 1998 ᴦ. Zhu Rongzi has been appointed the new prime minister of China. Prior to that, he served as the first deputy of Li Peng and was considered the main initiator of corporatization of the public sector. Zhu Rongzi was originally from Hunan Province but worked in Shanghai for a long time with Jiang Zemin. During the tragic events in Beijing in June 1989 ᴦ. Zhu Rongzi did not allow any clashes in Shanghai. He is a very hard-working, energetic person, disposed in favor of quick reforms; in China he is called the "king of the economy", abroad - the "Chinese Ludwig Erhard" (the father of the German "economic miracle" of the 1950s-1960s).
After becoming prime minister, Zhu Rongzi began a decisive reform of the state apparatus͵ with the task of reducing its number by half. Old officials were mercilessly dismissed: they were replaced by younger (under the age of 50) and professionally trained. Staff reduction began at state-owned enterprises: only in 1999 ᴦ. over 3 million people were dismissed. Zhu Rongzi launched an offensive against the positions of the military, first of all he demanded to curtail all economic and commercial activities in the army, for this a special two-year plan was adopted. Nowadays, there is not a single soldier on the Standing Committee of the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee in the PRC.
In November 2002 ᴦ. the XVI Congress of the CPC took place. There has been a change in top management. Jiang Zemin resigned from his post as General Secretary of the CCP. In his place was elected 59 ~ year old Hu Jintao. The post of CPC chairman was also transferred to him in early March 2003 ᴦ. Another younger figure, Wen Jiabao, became the premier of the State Council at the same time instead of Zhu Rongzi.
P. Economic achievements of modern China
The course of reforms was continued despite the Asian crisis of 1998-1999. - recession in the states of Southeast Asia (Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand). This directly affected China as well, since it is economically closely linked with these countries.
A special role was played by Hong Kong, which in the summer of 1997 ᴦ. became part of the PRC. Hong Kong's investment now accounts for over 60% of all foreign investment in the PRC. It is the third banking center in the world since 1987 ᴦ. is the world's largest port. Its gross domestic product contracted in 1998 ᴦ. by 4%, in 1999 ᴦ. - on 2%.
At this critical moment National Bank The PRC supported Hong Kong, thereby preventing the devaluation of both its currency and its own. In 2000 ᴦ. the consequences of the crisis were finally overcome.
In the 1990s. The PRC has achieved outstanding success in the economy: the average annual rate of economic growth exceeded 9%, industrial - 9.7%; the highest rates of industrial growth were observed in 1993 ᴦ.-23%.
According to some estimates, today the Chinese economy ranks third in the world (after the United States and Japan). Plans for the growth of gross domestic product to 2000 ᴦ. completed by 1995 ᴦ. According to the forecasts of the World Bank, in terms of the scale of the PRC's economy by 2010 ᴦ. will catch up with the USA, and by 2020 ᴦ. surpass it 1.4 times and become a leading power in the XXI century. But in comparison with its huge population, China still lags far behind the developed countries.
Nevertheless, the PRC consistently ranks first in the world in the production of steel, television sets, cement (35% of world production) and coal (30% of world production). The quality of Chinese goods has grown significantly, which is objectively evidenced by the huge surplus in foreign trade - over $ 40 billion a year. December 11, 2001 ᴦ. China joined the WTO, which it has been striving for for a long time. Now the share of industrial products in Chinese exports is about 80%. China's export volume exceeded $ 200 billion, and you can add about the same export from Hong Kong. The PRC has a huge trade surplus with developed Western countries, especially the United States (the largest surplus after Japan). The value of current construction contracts with American corporations alone exceeds $ 100 billion.
Attempts by the American presidents George W. Bush and B. Clinton to introduce additional tariffs on Chinese exports, under the pretext of violating human rights in the PRC or copyright to intellectual property, were unsuccessful. The PRC has managed to create huge gold reserves- over $ 150 billion, plus Hong Kong's reserves in the amount of $ 100 billion.
After the resumption of reforms in 1992 ᴦ. growth began foreign investment in the PRC. Now, in terms of their total volume, the country ranks second in the world after the United States; they grow annually by about $ 60 billion. Today, foreign investment accounts for 13% of the total investment in the Chinese economy, accounting for 14% of industrial production; Enterprises with foreign capital now account for half of all China's exports.
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China met the new millennium as one of the world's economic leaders. The country managed to create its own economic model, which used strengths centralized government controlled in combination with market mechanisms of competition in the production sphere.
The availability of cheap labor made the country attractive to foreign capital. The production of cheap products and the entry of these products to the world market became a breakthrough for the country in the field of obtaining foreign exchange profits.
China at the beginning of the XXI century is a space and nuclear power. Final formation and support market economy carried out in China under the leadership of the Communist Party on the basis of five-year plans. The PRC's economy remains diversified. Although the share of foreign investment in the country's economy is high, nearly 80% of all foreign investors are ethnic Chinese (huaqiao) living abroad. That is, China involves primarily patriotic fellow citizens into the sphere of its economy, thereby promoting. Their interests are in the developed countries of the world. By 2020, China, according to the CCP's plans, should catch up with the United States in total income GDP.
To support structural changes in the economy, China is actively developing its own education system, and also supports the study of students abroad (primarily in the United States and Japan). The import of technologies is encouraged that allow the development of such progressive and promising areas of the economy as development software, telecommunications industry, production of new materials, biotechnology, medical and pharmaceutical industries. The PRC has over 384 million Internet users, the country is the world leader in the number of mobile telephone users (487.3 million users as of April 2007, which is, of course, explained by the country's population). The Chinese "Silicon Valley" has been created in the Haidian region north of Beijing. The intensification of production, however, also has side effects: the level of hidden unemployment in rural areas is almost twice the official figures (4.6%). China encourages emigration behind the scenes China's economy. The structure of the Chinese economy. Electronic resource. Access mode: http: //www.ereport.ru/articles/weconomy/china2. htm.
The dynamics of the Chinese economy is well illustrated by a number of diagrams shown in Figure 1.
PRC GDP in billions of US dollars
China's GDP growth rate in%
The rate of industrial production in the PRC
China's export volume, billion US dollars
China's imports, billion US dollars
Rice. 1 The main indicators of the Chinese economy in dynamics
Here are some statistics that speak about modern level the Chinese economy and. thus, confirming the effectiveness of the reforms carried out in the country.
By 2006, China became the third largest producer Vehicle in the world (after the USA and Japan) and the second largest consumer (after the USA). Car production has grown dramatically during the reforms. China became the world's number one car maker in 2009. Today they also say that over the past few years there has been a jump in the quality of cars produced in the PRC.
China is the largest steel producer in the world, with the steel industry expanding rapidly in the early 21st century. Iron ore production kept pace with steel production in the early 1990s, but lagged significantly behind imports of iron ore and other metals in the early 2000s. Steel production increased from 140 million tonnes in 2000 to 419 million tonnes in 2006 (figures are rounded). Most of the steel is produced in small factories. China is the main steel exporter in the world. The volume of steel exports in 2008 amounted to 59.23 million tons (a decrease of 5.5% compared to 2007).
The explosive growth of the economy demanded from China to acquire energetic resources, while before the reforms the country was their supplier. The largest supplier of oil and gas to the PRC is Russia. At the same time, China is also building up its own energy capacities. "In 2009, China came third in the world in terms of total wind power capacity - 25104 MW. At the end of 2009, about 90 Chinese companies produced wind turbines, more than 50 companies produced blades and about 100 companies produced various components ...
In 2009, power plants with a total capacity of 226 GW were operating on renewable energy sources in China. Of these, 197 GW are hydropower plants, 25.8 GW wind farms, 3200 MW biomass fueled, and 400 MW grid-connected photovoltaic power plants. By 2020, the Chinese government plans to build 300 GW of new hydroelectric power plants, 150 GW of wind farms, 30 GW of biomass power plants, 20 GW of photovoltaic power plants. The total capacity of power plants operating on renewable energy sources will reach 500 GW, the capacity of the entire electric power industry in China will grow to 1600 GW. by 2020.
Nuclear power is also actively developing. It is planned to commission at least 1.8 GW of nuclear generating capacities annually, so that by 2020 the total capacity of Chinese nuclear power plants will increase to 40 GW, which by that time should be about 4% of the total energy balance of the country. Over the past 20 years of development, Chinese nuclear power has built nuclear power plants with a total capacity of power units at the level of 6.7 GW, which gives a little more than 1% of all electricity generation in the country ...
Grain production in the country in 2007 exceeded 500 million tons against 497 million tons produced in 2006. Analysts of the ministry note a gradual decrease in annual grain consumption per capita - from 412 kg in 1996 to 378 kg in 2006.
China ranked first in the world in terms of vegetable exports and fruit production. In recent years, the sown area for vegetable crops has been significantly expanded in the country. If in 1996 their total area was 11 million hectares, then in 2006 it reached 15 million hectares. The volume of vegetable production is able not only to satisfy domestic demand, but also to increase their export. In 2007, a mechanism for monitoring the quality and safety of products was created at 676 wholesale markets for agricultural products in large and medium-sized cities.
The total area of orchards increased from 9 million hectares in 1996 to 10 million hectares in 2006, during this period the volume of fruit harvest increased from 46.53 million tons to 95.99 million tons. Currently, fruit production in China accounts for 17% of the global volume. In 2007, the gross production of aquatic products of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (North China) reached 94 thousand tons, an increase of 8%. The net per capita income for fishermen was US $ 740, an increase of 10%.
In 2007, fish farming is developing steadily in China, a wide range of aquatic products is presented on the Chinese market, prices for seafood are stable, and trade is growing. The gross volume of production in this area in 2007 amounted to about 69.4 billion US dollars. "China's economy. The structure of China's economy. Electronic resource. Access mode: http: //www.ereport.ru/articles/weconomy/china2. Htm
Thus, today the Chinese economy has turned out to be not only competitive, but also more resilient to crisis phenomena. Than the economies of the developed countries of the West.
Officially, the Chinese government is pursuing an independent and peaceful foreign policy, the main goal of which is to create a strong and powerful united China, protect the country's independence and sovereignty, and create a favorable environment for economic development and openness to the outside world.
China's policy of "peaceful existence" is based on the basic five principles formed in 1954:
Mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity;
Non-aggression;
Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs;
4. Equality and mutual benefit. China officially "firmly adheres to its openness to the outside world, actively develops cooperation with all countries on the basis of equality and mutual benefit";
Peaceful coexistence.
Thus, the official position of Beijing in foreign policy presupposes the preservation of a peaceful international environment, the rejection of any claims to hegemony, the promotion of joint development and the protection of world peace. Based on these principles, China has established diplomatic relations with 161 states.
The main directions of China's foreign policy:
1) Development of diplomatic relations between China and the United States. Sino-American relations throughout the 20th century have been rather complex and unstable. In the 1950s, China opposed American aggression in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, which led to the subsequent exclusion of China from the UN council and the signing of an agreement between the United States and Taiwan on cooperation and joint defense. Relations have deteriorated even more after the Vietnam War unleashed by the Americans. It was only in 1969 that China and the United States took their first steps towards peace. In 1971, China finally joined the UN. Since that time, a warming has been outlined in relations between the two powers. In 1972, US President Nixon recognized Taiwan as part of China, and in 1979 the countries officially established diplomatic relations. Relations cooled somewhat after the 1989 Tiananmen Square uprisings in Beijing, when the West strongly condemned the actions of the Chinese government, however, in general, this did not weaken the economic ties between the two countries.
In October 1995. Jiang Zemin and Bill Clinton met in New York as part of the 50th anniversary of the UN. Jiang Zemin stressed the basic policy of resolving Sino-US relations based on "deepening trust, reducing friction, developing cooperation and ending confrontation."
2) Normalization and development of relations with India. Relations between India and China worsened as a result of the suppression of the uprising in Tibet in 1959 by Chinese troops, after which the Dalai Lama and part of the Tibetan population fled to India, where they met with the support of the Indian government. The rapprochement of the countries became possible only in 1977, when the countries again exchanged diplomats. Officially diplomatic relations were established in the early 1980s. Although there are still a number of unresolved territorial issues between China and India, India is China's most important strategic partner, and trade relations are actively developing between the countries.
3) Development of Sino-Japanese relations. For more than 40 years, Japan has been China's main trading partner, but despite this, political relations between the two countries remain difficult and periodically experience periods of tension. The main obstacles to the normalization of political relations between the two countries are the following: the Japanese position on Taiwan, China's discontent regarding the forms of Japan's apologies for the aggression of 1937-1945, the Japanese prime minister's visit to the temple where the main Japanese war criminals are canonized, differences in the interpretation of history , the growing military power of China, etc. The latest conflict broke out in September 2010, when the Japanese authorities detained a Chinese fishing vessel in the disputed waters of the East China Sea, where natural gas fields were discovered. The conflict was exacerbated by the sudden death in a Japanese zoo of a panda borrowed by China, for which China demanded compensation in the amount of $ 500,000. So far, the territorial dispute remains unresolved, but both states are interested in the peaceful settlement of these conflicts and the development of political and economic relations.
4) China-Russia. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation characterizes Russian-Chinese relations as stable and dynamically developing in all areas. In 2001, the countries signed an Agreement on Good Neighborliness, Friendship and Cooperation, which reflects the basic principles of relations. In the same year, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan founded the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, whose main tasks are to strengthen stability and security, fight terrorism, separatism, extremism, drug trafficking, develop economic cooperation, energy partnership, scientific and cultural interaction. ... In 2008, all territorial issues were finally settled between China and Russia, the discussion of which began in 1964. Russia recognizes Taiwan and Tibet as an integral part of China.
5) Restoration of territorial integrity. In the 1980s and 1990s, during peace negotiations, China regained Xianggang (Hong Kong) and Macau (Macau). However, there is still an unresolved conflict with Taiwan. In 1949, the Communists, who had won a civil war over the government of Chiang Kai-shek, announced the creation of the People's Republic of China. The overthrown government fled to Taiwan, where it established the Kuomintang regime, receiving active support from the United States. China claims sovereignty over the island and does not rule out a military solution to the problem. Recognition of Taiwan as an integral part of China is one of the main conditions for establishing diplomatic relations between the PRC and other countries. In recent years, with the arrival of new leaders in the United States and Taiwan, there has been an opportunity for closer and more constructive cooperation between the three parties in the near term.
The Taiwan administration has announced a program to boost economic ties with mainland China while maintaining the political status quo. In June last year, a framework agreement was signed between Taiwan and mainland China on economic cooperation, which, in fact, became the starting point for expanding economic and cultural interaction between the two shores of the Taiwan Strait.
According to official data from the PRC Ministry of Commerce, trade between mainland China and Taiwan in the first five months of 2011 amounted to US $ 65.86 billion, an increase of 15.3 percent. exceeds the same indicators of the last year. Mainland China's exports to Taiwan reached $ 14.54 billion, up 30.4 percent. higher than 2010 figures. Imports from Taiwan to mainland China totaled $ 51.32 billion, up 11.6 percent. more than last year. Between January and May 2011, more than 1,020 projects with Taiwanese investment were approved in mainland China. At the same time, investments from Taiwan in the amount of US $ 990 million have already been invested in specific projects.
The parties are also strengthening humanitarian ties, primarily by increasing tourist trips between the shores of the Taiwan Strait. At the end of June, tourists from mainland China went to Taiwan for the first time on private tours. Over the past three years, it was possible to visit Taiwan with Chinese passports, but only as part of tour groups. Until 2008, when Taipei lifted its 1949 ban on tourist exchanges, such travel was not possible at all.
6) Development of relations between China and Africa. In recent years, friendly relations between China and African countries have received a new impetus for development: every year the trade turnover between China and African countries is increasing several times. China has become Africa's second largest trading partner after the United States, and its presence on the continent is growing steadily. Most African countries have already recognized Taiwan as part of China and have severed diplomatic relations with the Taiwanese government. Thus, China not only gained an important trade and strategic partner, but also received additional support on the Taiwan issue. Every three years, since 2000, the countries participate in the China-Africa Cooperation Forum summits, during which social projects on the African continent are also discussed. More than 15,000 students from African countries are sent annually to study at Chinese universities.
Similar information.
Discipline: Political science
Kind of work: abstract
Topic: China's geostrategic policy in the late 20th - early 21st centuries
China's geostrategic policy in the late 20th - early 21st centuries 3
References 11
China's geostrategic policy in the late 20th - early 21st centuries
The specifics of the PRC's foreign policy should be considered its formalization into a state doctrine or into a foreign policy theory. Usually it is the most important component, more precisely, the guiding pivot in the process of forming and implementing foreign policy. It is designed to convince the population of the validity of certain steps of Chinese policy in the international arena. Rationale is based on theory, which, in turn, is designed to reflect objective reality. In accordance with the standards of Chinese definitions, theory (lilun) is \ "a system of concepts and principles, or systematized rational knowledge; a scientific theory is established on the basis of social practice and is proved and tested by social practice, and correctly reflects the essence and laws of objective reality. theory is determined by its ability to control human behavior \ ".
It should be borne in mind here that, in contrast to Chinese practice, Americans, in principle, do not recognize objective realities. Therefore, objectivist philosophers have never been popular with them, in particular, one of the brilliant among them is Hegel. It seems to them that reality is created by the Americans themselves. One should not be embarrassed by the presence in the United States of various concepts and foreign policy doctrines (the doctrine of political realism, non-conservatism, neoliberalism, etc.). These theories are not scientifically theories. Usually they represent a set of goals that Washington must achieve in the international arena in accordance with the national interests of the United States. They absolutely do not care how these interests are acceptable or correspond to the interests of other subjects of international politics. Moreover, they are not interested in how adequate they are to the objective course of human development. This is also the specificity of American foreign policy.
In China, theory has historically been held in high esteem. If it seemed persuasive and reflected the personal practice of most Chinese, then theory-based policy was not a difficult task in terms of domestic support. Moreover, the Chinese are not confused by the frequent change of theories. On the contrary, the \ "eternal \" theory would cause great caution. In consciousness, this is fixed by the fact that since life, the world situation, and China itself are constantly changing, then the theory, reflecting these changes, must also change, otherwise it turns into a dogma.
In Chinese documents, there is often a term - linghuo xing (flexibility), which, as it were, accumulates and reflects phenomena that require constant changes. At the same time, there are certain permanent things that cannot be changed, or at least they cannot be changed. These are a kind of fundamental principles concerning vital national interests. Such uncompromising things are denoted by the term - yuanze shing (principles), under which the national interests, sovereignty and socialist development of the PRC fall. Among national interests, the principle of reunification with Taiwan is clearly fixed, and this principle is not subject to compromise or even discussion. The category of similar principles includes Chinese values - zhongxue weichi, which cannot be compromised when interacting with the West. At the same time, the principle - xixue weiyun (Western values) assumes the use of Western values for technical and practical purposes.
Without knowledge of this type of nuance, it is often difficult to understand the "inconsistency" of Chinese theories and behavior of Beijing in the international arena.
After the formation of the PRC in 1949, China officially changed several theories. In the 1950s, this was the theory of \ "two camps \": on one side, a capitalist camp led by the United States, on the other, a socialist camp led by the USSR and China (the latter as a \ "little brother \"), between which was located \ "intermediate zone \", which consisted of the liberating countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, later designated as countries \ "third world \".
In the 1960s, the theory of \ "two camps \" was transformed into the theory of \ "three worlds \": the first world - imperialism led by the United States, the second world - social imperialism led by the USSR (this included all socialist skie countries of Eastern Europe, with the exception of Romania and Albania) and the third world - developing countries led by the PRC.
In the 1970s, this theory changed: now the first world is made up of the imperialist USA and the social-imperialist USSR, vying for hegemony in the world; the second world - the rest of the capitalist countries, the third world in the same composition, headed by the PRC30. Now it is curious to read how Deng Xiaoping interpreted this theory, which he apparently created.
At the Special Session of the UN General Assembly, April 10, 1979, in his speech, which was later published under the title \ "Theory of three worlds \", he said: “While the two great superpowers are fighting for world hegemony, the contradictions between them are inevitable. ... Their compromises and deals can only be partial, temporary and relative, while their rivalry is pervasive, permanent and absolute. Ultimately, the so-called \ "balanced reduction of forces \" and \ "limitation of strategic weapons \" is nothing more than empty talk, since in fact there is no \ "balance \", there can be no \ " limitation \ ". They can reach certain agreements, but their agreements are only a facade and a deception. This rivalry between the two superpowers is pervasive across the globe.
This passage testifies to how the purely ideological approach inherent in previous theories became intertwined with geostrategic reasoning, and how quickly, just three years later, it was replaced by a purely pragmatic vision of the world.
In the 1980s, the \ "theory of three worlds \" somehow imperceptibly disappeared from the political vocabulary of Chinese leaders. Its place was taken by \ "coordinate theory \": "East - West", "North - South". Although it was made public by Zhao Ziyang at the Sixth Congress of the NPC (June 1983), it is clear that it was formulated by Deng Xiaoping. The \ "theory \" itself is not new, but the Chinese version gave it a special character. In accordance with this theory, a process of peace began between East and West, and a process of development between North and South, and the second process is key. In relations between East and West, China avoids alliance-like ties, and also opposes \ "hegemony \". Within the framework of North-South relations, China maintains dialogue and cooperation along the South-South line.
This \ "theory \" bears little resemblance to theory. Ideological clichés disappeared in it, testifying, on the one hand, of a change in Beijing's policy towards the USSR, which at that moment demonstrated a tough anti-Western, more precisely anti-American line (the time of Yu. Andropov), on the other hand, some anti-Americanism in the policy of the USSR. Beijing (in the first term of R. Reagan), on the third hand - the need to balance their relations within the big \ "triangle \" (USSR-USA-China). The main thing is that China embarked on the path of reforms, which required a historical pause for the accumulation of forces, including with the help of as many states as possible, regardless of their political coloring. It is no coincidence, therefore, for the first time in its \ "theory \" China did not call anyone its \ "enemy \". The Open Doors policy required friendship with everyone.
In the 1990s, especially in the second half of the 90s, China became significantly stronger, managed to involve many countries and TNCs in its economy. Now, without any particular apprehension, the Chinese leaders began to re-emphasize the ideological aspects of the international situation and the policies of certain states. And to this, as well as in connection with the internal political situation, they are pushed by the West itself, or rather, again by the United States. The leaders of the PRC are constantly forced to emphasize that their country is socialist, which has its own vision and understanding of the world, different from those of Washington. This vision was summarized by the director of one of the scientific centers CPC Central Committee Wang Ruipu.
In the spirit of classical Marxism, in which the category \ "contradiction \" plays a decisive role in the analysis of social phenomena, the Chinese scientist writes: “The modern international situation is characterized by three types of contradictions. Besides the East-West and South-North problems, there is the North-North problem.
East-West relations refer to the contradictions between socialist and capitalist countries. After the collapse of the former Soviet Union, China remained the only large socialist country in the world. Naturally, China has become the main target in the "peaceful evolution" strategy of the West.
South-North relations are intertwined with tensions between developing and developed countries. China, as the largest developing country, is again taking the blow in this regard.
North-North relations are contradictions within the most developed states. Recently, conflicts have become more acute, and this gives China room for maneuver in conducting its own diplomatic activity. "
At the same time, China's own foreign policy is being built, as it is constantly emphasized by all Chinese leaders, on the basis of the \ "independent policy of the world \", which is based on the 5 principles of peaceful coexistence. Let me remind them: mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity; mutual non-aggression and non-interference in the internal affairs of other states; equality and mutual benefit and peaceful coexistence.
The ideological independence of the PRC began to be emphasized more and more often. Li Peng at the Third Session of the Eighth Congress of the NPC (March 5, 1995) stated: “We do not impose our social system or ideology to others, but we are also against attempts by other countries to impose their social system or ideology on us ”. The next year, the \ "ideological factor \" was strengthened. A special chapter (VI) entitled "Developing Socialist Culture and Ideology and Strengthening Democracy and the Legislative System" was introduced into Li Peng's report at the Fourth Session of the Eighth NPC Congress (March 5, 1996). In particular, it said: “... We must give priority to the development of socialist culture and ideology ... We must not look for temporary successes in economic development at the expense of cultural and ideological progress. ... We must develop the traditional virtues of the Chinese nation, respect the achievements of human civilization and resist the decaying capitalist and feudal ideas. "
Finally, at the Sixth Plenum of the 14th session of the CPC Central Committee (October 10, 1996), a resolution was approved \ "On promoting the development of socialist ethics and cultural progress \", which gave a detailed program of socialist cultural construction in China based on Marxism-Leninism , the ideas of Mao Zedong and Dengxiaoping's theory of building socialism with Chinese characteristics. The resolution, in particular, emphasized the need to clearly distinguish “right from wrong on such major issues as Marxism from anti-Marxism, dialectical and historical materialism from idealism and metaphysics, the general development of various sectors of the economy with public property as the basis for development from privatization, socialist democracy from parliamentary democracy practiced in Western countries, socialist ideology and culture from feudal and corrupt capitalist ideology and culture ”.
Naturally, the more frequent ideological passages were caused by the increasing US pressure on China in the field of \ "human rights \".
In the aforementioned speech of Li Peng, the \ "Taiwan part \" was also strengthened in comparison with the position of 1995. After the statement that China is inclined towards \ "peaceful reunification \", it was added: use of force. The fact that we do not abandon the use of force is not directed against our compatriots in Taiwan, but against the plans of Western forces to interfere in Chinese reunification and cause an "independent Taiwan."
Li Peng reproduced the current Chinese position on the structure of the world. The world is becoming multipolar, he said. And it consists of North America, Europe and East Asia. It should be noted that Japan does not stand out as a separate pole or center, but is part of East Asia. This world, - continues Li Peng, - is full of contradictions, and their cause is \ "hegemonism and the politics of force \". There is still \ "injustice and an irrational international political and economic order \". In these conditions, China continues to pursue \ "an independent foreign policy of the world, develop friendly relations of cooperation with all countries and work to establish a just and rational new international political and economic order \". A very important point: \ "China will not enter into an alliance with any great power or bloc of countries, nor will it make the social system or ideology for interstate relations a criterion \".
If we cleanse this speech from the "fog", then an apparent ambiguity in the approach of official Beijing to the United States will be revealed. It is clear that the hegemon is now only the United States, which is responsible for the \ "irrational and unjust international order \". China wants to restore the "rational order", i.e. in fact, he is at least in potential confrontation with the United States. On the other hand, Beijing stipulates that the \ "ideological \" coloring of the countries does not bother it, which implies economic cooperation with the United States. He is not going to enter into blocs, nor into alliances with great powers. The proclamation of such intentions does not oblige you to anything, since the PRC simply has no one to join the bloc with at present. All serious blocs are grouped around the United States, but there is no sense with frivolous blocs.
At the same time, such vague and seemingly contradictory assessments allow \ "explain \" any steps of the PRC in the international arena, make it possible from time to time, depending on the situation, to rearrange the accents in their foreign policy structures and say, for example, not about blocs, but about \ "strategic partnership \". The main thing that can be missed by experts is the identification of East Asia as one of the three centers of the world, the core of which, of course, implies China. And although Japan is still \ "left \" there, but it must either be dissolved in the Chinese \ "influence \", or \ "jump out \" outside East Asia as an independent center, or remain part of the North American center.
Bibliography
1. Civilization: Clash or Fusion // Beijing Review, Jan. 15-21, 2002.
2. East and West Mutually Complementary // Beijing Review, Jan. 15-21, 2002.
3. Fuller, Graham. The next Ideology. - Foreign Policy Spring 2003.
6. Weede, Erich. Future Hegemonic Rivalry between China and the West?
Pick up fileA series of events that quickly led to the revolution began in April 1911 with the signing of an agreement between the government and a group of banks in England, France, Germany and the United States to transfer the rights to build the Huguang Railway in central China. On October 10, after an anti-Chinese conspiracy was uncovered in Hankou, which apparently had no connection with the events around the Huguang Railway, troops mutinied in Wuchang. This event is considered the beginning of the revolution. The rebels soon captured the Wuchansky mint and arsenal, and soon the cities, one after another, began to break out of submission to the Manchus. The regent, seized by panic, immediately agreed to the long-demanded adoption of the constitution by the national forces and at the same time asked the retired former imperial governor General Yuan Shikai to return and save the dynasty. In November, Yuan Shikai was appointed head of government.
A provisional republican government was formed in Nanjing. At the same time, Sun Yat-sen, the leader of the democratic revolutionary movement, returned to China and was immediately elected president.
In December, Yuan Shikai agreed to a truce and entered into negotiations with the Republicans. On February 12, 1912, the young emperor was forced to abdicate and proclaim that he was transferring power to the people's representatives. In turn, the Nanjing government agreed that the emperor retain his title and receive a lot of maintenance for life. To unite the country, Sun Yat-sen left the presidency, and Yuan Shikai was elected to this post. General Li Yuanhong, * who played an outstanding role in Wuchang events, was elected vice president. In March 1912, the Nanjing parliament promulgated an interim constitution, and in April the government moved to Beijing.
However, subsequent events showed that the republic, established with such tremendous speed and relative ease, was doomed to witness progressive collapse over the next few decades. The main reason for this state of affairs was the split of China into two political camps - supporters of Yuan Shikai and adherents of the first president, Sun Yat-sen.
In August 1912, Sun Yat-sen created the Kuomintang Party (National People's Party). Her program was based on the "three principles of Sun Yat-sen": nationalism (freedom from foreign rulers), democracy (establishment of a democratic republic) and popular prosperity (equalization of land rights for all Chinese through the establishment of uniform prices for it.
After the Chinese President Yuan Shikai launched an offensive against the Kuomintang, which has a majority in parliament, in early 1913 with the aim of establishing his own dictatorship in the country, Sun Yat-sen appealed to the people for a "second revolution." In November 1913, Yuan Shikai banned the Kuomintang.
On May 1, 1914, Yuan Shikai passed a new constitution through parliament, which gave him unlimited powers for a period of 10 years as president. In the same year, Sun Yat-sen revived the Kuomintang. And after Yuan Shikai ceded South Manchuria and part of Inner Mongolia to Japan in 1915 and officially announced preparations for the restoration of the monarchy, the Kuomintang revolted in Yunnan province. But on June 6, 1916, President Yuan Shikai died.
The new president was Li Yuanhong, who reinstated the 1912 constitution and parliament in the same composition as it was before the dissolution in 1914. However, the actual power in the country passed into the hands of the generals. One of them, Duan Qirui, became the head of the Chinese government. However, already in 1917, the pro-Japanese sentiments of Duan Qirui and his supporters forced President Li Yuanhong to remove the head of government. However, there was no real shift. At this moment, a military coup broke out among the generals - supporters of the monarchy. The coup was suppressed by the troops of Duan Qirui, who occupied Beijing and made Feng Guozhang president.
However, already in May 1918, the Kuomintang government, independent of Beijing, was again formed in the southern provinces of China, which advocated the restoration of the 1912 constitution. A civil war began, which lasted just over two months, after which the parties began negotiations, which continued until 1920.
It must be said that, along with the groupings of Chinese generals, at that time another force was formed in China, which, over time, was destined to oust all the others from power. In 1921, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was formed, led by Li Dazhao and Mao Zedong.
In 1925, Sun Yat-sen died, and the Kuomintang split into supporters of the Kuomintang's rapprochement with the Communists and the USSR and adherents of an orientation toward an alliance with Chinese generals. The latter were already expelled from the party in 1926, and the Kuomintang headed by Wang Jingwei took a course towards an alliance with the CPC. In the summer of 1926, the Kuomintang, with the support of the CPC, began an armed struggle for the unification of the country (the so-called "Northern Expedition"). His goal was to defeat the northern generals and subjugate all of China to the central government. By the end of 1926, troops under the command of the Kuomintang general Chiang Kai-shek, with the active help of the USSR, the People's Revolutionary Army had defeated almost all the main opponents except for the "Army of Peace of the Country" under the command of Generalissimo Zhang Zuolin.
Immediately after Chiang Kai-shek's forces entered Shanghai and Nanjing in March 1927, British and American navies in the region began an open invasion of China from the sea.
After the capture of Nanking in the ranks of the Kuomintang, a split again occurred between the supporters of the head of the government Wang Jingwei and the adherents of Chiang Kai-shek. The capital of the first was Wuhan, and Chiang Kai-shek proclaimed Nanjing as his capital. In April 1927, Chiang Kai-shek, in connection with the constant pressure of the USSR on the Chinese communists about the need for an internal collapse of the Kuomintang, decided to refuse to cooperate with the CPC. And by August 1927, the Wuhan representation of the Kuomintang made the same decision.
The split, of course, did not strengthen the People's Revolutionary Army, which already in 1927 was defeated by the Japanese. Wang Jingwei and his supporters saw in this event an excellent reason to remove Chiang Kai-shek from his post. In September, a new Kuomintang government was formed in Nanjing, more concerned with fighting the communists than with Zhang Zuolin's army and his Japanese allies. On December 15, 1927, Nanjing announced the severance of diplomatic relations with the USSR, although Moscow did not officially recognize the Nanking government. In January 1928, Chiang Kai-shek again became the head of the Kuomintang forces. Soon he announces the continuation of the Northern Expedition. On October 10, 1928, the Nanjing government was officially declared nationwide. It was headed by Chiang Kai-shek.
After the Kuomintang's break with the CPC, the communists, with the support of the USSR, in 1929 began the struggle for the creation of red regions in China, that is, the establishment of the power of the communists there. From 1929 to 1932, the Chinese Red Army repulsed 5 military campaigns of the Kuomintang troops. At the end of 1931, at the All-China Congress of Soviets, a unified government of the Soviet regions of China was elected, headed by Mao Zedong.
In the fall of 1931, Japan occupied Manchuria, where the state of Manchukuo, independent from China, was proclaimed, headed by the last Qin emperor Pu Yi. The League of Nations, which sent its special commission there, also confirmed the independence of Manchuria. This organization ruled that Manchukuo should be considered a Japanese colony.
The Japanese invasion forced China to change its relations with its other neighbors, and in December 1932 the Kuomintang restored diplomatic relations with the USSR. In 1933-1935, the Japanese again invaded China and occupied the northern regions, including Beijing. At the same time, as a result of a massive offensive, the Kuomintang troops managed to oust the Chinese Red Army and the Soviets from the southern regions, but the communist forces, having broken through the ring of the Kuomintang armies, went to the northwest, to the Shaanxi province, where they created a new large Soviet region.
In the second half of 1936, hostilities between the Guo Mingdang troops and the Chinese Red Army practically ceased. On September 22, 1937, Marshal Chiang Kai-shek officially announced the creation of a united anti-Japanese front in China and cooperation with the CPC. The Red Army was renamed the 8th People's Revolutionary Army under the command of the communist Zhu Te and began fighting the Japanese in the north-east of the country in Shanxi province. Chiang Kai-shek became Generalissimo.
However, the creation of a united anti-Japanese front and the active military support of China by the USSR (Soviet pilots who flew on Soviet planes fought on the side of the People's Revolutionary Army), and since 1941 - the United States, could not stop the Japanese. By 1938, Japanese troops reached Tianjin, occupied Shanghai and Nanjing. By 1943, they had taken Canton, Hankou, and Wuchang. In 1944, the Japanese advanced significantly northwest of Canton (up to 105 ° E) and west from Shanghai to the Beijing-Hankou railway. Only after serious defeats in the war with the United States in the Pacific did the balance begin to tilt in China's favor.
After the USSR began military action against Japan on August 9, 1945, the likelihood of a civil war in China increased even more. To the active support of the Chinese Red Army by the USSR with weapons and ammunition was added the fact that after the defeat and surrender of the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria, all the weapons captured by Soviet troops were transferred to the Communist army. In addition, Soviet military advisers have reappeared in the Chinese Red Army.
Given the current situation, Chiang Kai-shek, under pressure from the United States, which sought to reconcile the CPC and the Kuomintang and prevent a civil war, which could lead to a significant strengthening of the USSR's position in the Far East, suggested that the CPC enter into negotiations on the formation of the governing bodies of a future democratic China. As a result of a conference held on this occasion in October 1945, it was decided to create a provisional government in which half of the seats would be occupied by representatives of the Kuomintang, and the other half - by representatives of all other parties and political organizations.
In July 1946, the mutual distrust of the parties finally escalated into a civil war. At this point, the Kuomintang had an approximately fourfold advantage on the side, however, given the equipment of the Chinese Red
Army with Japanese and Soviet weapons, on the one hand, and the termination of the United States' supply of weapons to the Kuomintang army, on the other hand, Chiang Kai-shek's advantage was not so significant. Nevertheless, Chiang Kai-shek's armies crossed the conditional demarcation border of the spheres of influence of the Kuomintang and the CPC and in the spring of 1947 occupied the capital of the Yan'an border region. In response, the communists immediately launched a guerrilla war.
Already in January 1948, a split occurred in the Kuomintang. Supporters of peace with the communists quit the party and take the side of the CCP. The consequences of the split did not hesitate to tell. In the summer of 1948, the People's Liberation Army of China was formed, the core of which is the Chinese Red Army, which goes on the offensive. As a result of offensive operations on January 31, 1949, the communists and their allies took Beijing. The negotiations with the Kuomintang that began after that did not yield any results, and by the summer of 1949 the Kuomintang troops were almost completely defeated. The remnants of Chiang Kai-shek's army, led by the generalissimo himself, using the fact that the entire available Chinese fleet and most of the aircraft were Kuomintang, were evacuated to Taiwan and several small coastal islands. And only in certain regions of mainland China, the struggle against Chiang Kai-shek's supporters continued until 1951. As a result, the Kuomintang Republic of China was formed in Taiwan, with Taipei as its capital and Chiang Kai-shek as its first president.
In September 1949, the Central People's Government of China was formed in Beijing. Naturally, all the main government posts were occupied by the communists. The government and the People's Revolutionary Military Council were headed by Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai became the chairman of the State Council of China, and Marshal Zhu Te became the commander-in-chief of the People's Liberation Army of China (PLA). And on October 1, 1949, on the main square of Beijing Tiananmen, Mao Zedong announced the formation of the People's Republic of China (PRC).
The period 1950-1976 went down in history as the "Period of Two Chinas" - the PRC and the Republic of China in Taiwan. However, it should always be borne in mind that Taiwan China was not recognized by all states, as well as the PRC. Suffice it to say that until 1971 China was represented in the UN by Taiwan, and the USSR generally denied that there was any other China besides the PRC.
The first significant event after the formation of the PRC was the conclusion in early 1950 of a treaty of friendship, alliance and mutual assistance with the USSR for a period of 30 years. Under its terms, the USSR transferred the Chinese Eastern Railway to China, carried out the withdrawal of troops from Port Arthur, provided the PRC with a preferential loan of $ 300 million and provided comprehensive assistance in the restoration of the Chinese economy. The PRC, in turn, recognized the independence of the Mongolian People's Republic and assumed the obligations of a military ally of the USSR in the Far East. In this capacity, the PRC army took part in the Korean War.
By 1952, the main indicators of China's economy had reached the pre-war level (1936). Not the least role in this was played by the elimination of landlord ownership and the creation of a huge number of small private farms and rural cooperative partnerships of mutual assistance, as well as the development of private entrepreneurship and the nationalization of large industrial enterprises. As a result, the public sector of the economy accounted for only 41% of industrial production. It is not surprising that the CPC leadership could not fail to respond to such a significant share of the non-state sector in the economy. And already in 1952, having decided that the business of economic recovery was completed and the bourgeoisie was no longer needed, the CCP advanced the slogan of combating bribery, tax evasion, theft of state property, sabotaging the fulfillment of state orders, using secret economic information for personal purposes and bureaucracy, and also carries out the first extermination of the national bourgeoisie, which the communist-minded Chinese called the purge, according to the model generally accepted in the communist world. As a result of this action, about 2 million people were killed. From that moment on, the PRC finally departed from the general democratic principles of state building and passed to the construction of socialism.
At the end of 1952, the CPC Central Committee announced new tasks - by 1967 to create modern industry in the country, socialist (that is, state) agriculture, to carry out a cultural revolution (that is, to eliminate illiteracy among the population and instill communist ideas in it).
In 1954, a new constitution entered into force in the PRC. According to it, the National People's Congress became the highest organ of state power in the PRC. The supreme executive power continued to belong to the Council of State. In addition, the post of Chairman of the PRC was introduced. It was Mao Zedong.
In the economy, by 1957, China had undergone significant changes. Based on the Soviet experience and the tasks of creating a powerful military potential in the PRC, a national heavy industry was built. All private enterprises were bought out by the state. Although much less was paid for them real value, the former owners were left with higher salaries and special bonuses. There is almost no private trade left in the PRC. The private producer also almost completely disappeared in agriculture. Over 96% of them were united in cooperatives, and 90% - in farms of the type of Soviet collective farms (that is, in fact, in state enterprises).
Predictably, Chinese collectivization led to famine and peasant riots in the countryside, which were suppressed by military force.
As a result, the Eighth Congress of the CPC, held in 1956, was forced to abandon its policy and indirectly condemned Chairman Mao for speeding up the construction of socialism. Since the "big brother", as the USSR was called in the PRC, said so, the CPC leadership had to pretend for a while that the policy would be changed. The course was announced for the democratization of society. Dissent was no longer prosecuted and political debate began in Chinese society.
However, Mao Zedong himself did not agree with this. Considering that from 1953 to 1957, industrial growth sometimes reached 19% a year, looking at the Soviet thaw with all its negative consequences from the point of view of building socialism, and also seeing that China again ceases to be a country of like-minded supporters of the ideas of Marx - Lenin - - Stalin-Mao, the CPC leadership gives instructions to arrest 100 thousand dissidents, and another 400 thousand were declared accomplices of the bourgeoisie. Thereafter, in May 1958, the CCP convenes a second session.
VIII Party Congress. It condemned the course towards democratization and announced the policy of "three red banners": a new party line, which provided for the accelerated construction of communism in China; The "great leap forward" in the economy, which meant an increase in industrial output 6.5 times over four years, agriculture - in 2.5 times, and steel and iron smelting - 8 times; the creation of people's communes, that is, the complete socialization of the entire life of the Chinese, with the goal of meeting the minimum needs of everyone while accumulating everything created as a state property. According to this plan, the PRC in 7 years was supposed to overtake the USSR and the USA, and in 10 years to build communism.
The beginning of this "great creation" was laid already in the same 1958. By the end of the year, almost all agricultural cooperatives in the country had been transformed into people's communes. From that moment on, every Communard was considered mobilized for the construction of communism. He was not supposed to have anything of his own, except for small personal items. The communards were supposed to live not in separate families, but in barracks, eating in common canteens, and the children of the communards were brought up not in a family, but in special kindergartens. And of course, everyone had to work as long as their physical condition allows.
Against the backdrop of gigantomania and the exaltation of Mao Zedong personally, the CCP began to have serious disagreements with the Soviet Union. In 1958, the USSR condemned the idea of a "Great Leap Forward" as unrealistic, and Mao Zedong and his associates expressed disagreement with the CPSU over criticism of Stalin. Disagreements arose in military sphere... After the artillery of the PRC fired at one of the islands, which belonged to the Kuomintang China, Beijing turned to Moscow with a request to provide it with nuclear weapons and support the invasion of Taiwan by military forces. Rightly believing that this would be the third world war, the USSR refused. However, instead, Moscow offered to locate a base for its submarines on the territory of the PRC. But Mao Zedong did not agree to this.
After all these quarrels, the distance between the USSR and the PRC began to grow. Mao Zedong, under pressure from obvious problems in the economy, was forced to resign from the post of Chairman of the PRC, and already in 1959 it became clear that the Soviet Union was right - the idea of the "Great Leap Forward" failed (famine occurred in the country, and by 1962 industrial production in the PRC fell by more than 2 times). As a result of continuing disagreements, in 1960, the USSR withdrew its specialists from the PRC, and Chinese students stopped studying at Soviet universities.
In 1961, the CPC terminates the policy of the “three red banners” and announces a new policy of “regulating the economy,” which was pursued until 1965. This course in the history of the PRC is associated with the names of the new Chairman of the PRC Liu Shaoqi and member of the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee Deng Xiaoping, who CCP history it is customary to call pragmatists in contrast to dogmatists - those supporters of Mao who unconditionally followed his teachings. During implementation new policies household plots and property were returned to the peasants, the communes were disbanded, and production teams were created in their place. For their work, workers were now paid based on their qualifications. The peasants were now obliged to surrender to the state only part of their products and at the same time could choose what to grow on their plots, received permission to sell their products at the newly opened bazaars, and also had the right to engage in household crafts and petty trade. As a result of this course, the PRC's economy has achieved significant success. The growth of national income in 1963-1965 was 15.5% per year, and in October 1964, its own atomic bomb was successfully tested. And only agriculture remained the only sector that was never fully recovered after the implementation of the “three red banners” policy.
However, Mao Zedong and his associates continued to insist on their correctness and the fallacy of the course followed by the CPSU. And in July 1963 there was a final break between the CPC and the CPSU. The Chinese communists accused the Soviets of deviating from the basic principles of Marxism-Leninism and deliberately disorienting the world communist movement for their own purposes. The USSR was declared a country of social-imperialism.
Mao Zedong and his followers were not happy with what was happening inside the PRC. Mao had a new idea - about the need for a "great proletarian cultural revolution" in the PRC. Its goal was to liberate the country from old cultural traditions, rules and habits, as well as from their carriers, who are no longer able to comprehend the new cultural norms that have arisen in connection with the new realities of the socialist economy. The implementation of this idea began in 1966.
In May 1966, a special group for the "cultural revolution" was organized under the CPC Central Committee. It was headed by Mao Zedong's wife Jiang Qing and Mao's personal secretary Chen Boda. The Minister of Defense of the People's Republic of China, member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, Lin Biao, also spoke out for the purge of the ranks of the CPC in the light of the "cultural revolution". As a result, troops were brought into Beijing, and a number of prominent CCP leaders who did not unconditionally agree with the "Great Helmsman" Mao Zedong and the dogmatists were removed from their posts. When the country saw that opponents of the PRC's path to communism had even settled in the Central Committee of the CPC, detachments of defenders of the path of Mao Zedong, that is, the "cultural revolution", voluntarily began to form in the country. They received the name "hongweiping" ("red guard"). It must be said that, seeing this course of events, the pragmatists in the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee tried to stop the implementation of the next great idea of Chairman Mao. To this end, they began preparations for the transfer of Mao Zedong from the post of Chairman of the CPC to the position of Honorary Chairman of the Party. However, the "Great Helmsman" himself did not agree with this and, having swam down the river for about 15 km, demonstrated to the whole China that in his 72 years he is still quite capable of remaining the real head of the party.
In August, a special plenary session of the CPC Central Committee was held, which for the first time was attended not only by members and candidates for members of the Central Committee, but also unconditional adherents of Mao's ideas from the universities of the PRC and the hungweiping. The pragmatists were criticized, and Chairman Mao himself called for the fight against the opponents of the "cultural revolution", no matter what posts they occupy. Now in all organizations, departments for the "cultural revolution" were to be created, the creation of red guards and zaofan ("rebels") detachments from young people was encouraged in every possible way, whose task was to actively spread the "cultural revolution" and actively fight those who resist it.
The results of such propaganda and activities of the hungweipings and zaofan were not slow to show. The country's schools and universities stopped working, because the hungweipings who occupied them believed that the knowledge that these institutions provide was outdated and no longer needed. Those residents of the country who fell into the ranks of the unreliable were sent to concentration camps "for correction."
During the fight against counterrevolutionaries in 1969, Chairman of the People's Republic of China Liu Shaoqi was arrested and tortured in prison, Deng Xiaoping was removed from all posts and sent to the province, where he was "re-educated", working as a simple mechanic. In total, during the years of the "cultural revolution", out of 97 members of the CPC Central Committee, 60 were declared traitors, spies and repressed.
To avoid mass indignation of the population by the actions of cultural revolutionaries, in January 1967, Mao Zedong introduced martial law in the PRC. The duties of maintaining order in the country were entrusted to the army. Local authorities the authorities were replaced by revolutionary committees, which consisted of the military, hungweipings and reliable government officials. Soon after the introduction of martial law, the army came to the conclusion that the main source of unrest was not the activities of the agents of international imperialism, but the licentiousness and atrocities of the hungweipings and zaofangs. And already in the summer of 1968, the army began to evict the hungweipings and zaofangs from cities to the countryside. This process ended only in 1976. In total, about 30 million people were deported.
The IX Congress of the CPC was held in the spring of 1969. He declared the victory of the "cultural revolution". But along with this, it was concluded that the final victory of socialism in the PRC is impossible as long as imperialism, led by the United States, and social-imperialism, led by the USSR, exist. Therefore, the PRC must continue to fight for the purity of its country from traitors and spies with all its might and prepare for war. At the congress it was again stated that theoretical basis The CPC's activities are the ideas of Chairman Mao. Lin Biao was appointed as his official successor.
Of course, preparation for war for the PRC has been a top priority since its inception. But if earlier the main enemies were the United States and Kuomintang China, then since 1963 the USSR gradually got into this list under No. 2 (immediately after the United States). In response to this position of the PRC, the USSR, within the framework of a mutual assistance treaty, sent troops to the Mongolian People's Republic.
In 1969, Chinese troops attacked the Soviet border island of Damansky, and in August crossed the border into the Semipalatinsk region (modern Kazakhstan). Immediately after these events, the armed forces of the USSR in the Far East were put on high alert. Everything went to the point that a war would start and Soviet aviation would strike at the nuclear facilities of the PRC. However, in September, President of the State Council of the People's Republic of China Zhou Enlai managed to ease the tension. He invited the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, A. N. Kosygin, to Beijing, and during a short meeting the acuteness of mutual claims was significantly weakened.
But Lin Biao strongly disagreed with this turn of events. His position became even more harsh when the PRC began rapprochement with enemy No. 1 - the United States. The fact is that US President R. Nixon decided to change his position with regard to Taiwan. In 1970, mutual consultations began on the recognition of the PRC by the United States. In response, Lin Biao imposed martial law in the country and further tightened the detention of political prisoners. But in 1971, Lin Biao did not seem to be enough, and he led a conspiracy against Mao Zedong. However, the train in which Mao was traveling could not be blown up. And very soon after that, Lin Biao died in a plane crash very timely.
The 1973 X Congress of the CCP condemned the group, Lin Biao. After the convention, Deng Xiaoping was rehabilitated.
Meanwhile, relations between China and the United States were improving. In February 1972 and December 1975, the American presidents R. Nixon and G. Ford visited Beijing. And since 1972, the United States finally agreed to replace the representative of the Kuomintang China with the representative of the PRC in the UN. In the same year, Japan and the PRC established diplomatic relations with each other. Under the terms of the agreement, China relinquished its share of the reparations paid by Japan after 1945.
Mao Zedong passed away on September 9, 1976, and State Council Premier Hua Guofeng succeeded him. With the help of the military, he managed to defeat the four closest associates of Chairman Mao - Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, Wang Hongwen, who were called the "gang of four." After their arrest, Hua Guofeng announced the end of the Cultural Revolution. However, already at that moment the results of the revolution were more than tangible. More than 100 million people were repressed, of which 8-10 million died.
By the end of 1978, a group of pragmatists led by Deng Xiaoping had ousted the successive Maoists led by Hua Guofeng. The December 1978 plenary session of the CPC Central Committee initiated the process of reforms in the PRC, or "the building of New China," as the Chinese themselves called it. In 1980, Hu Yaobang became General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, and Zhao Ziyang took over the post of Premier instead of Hua Guofeng. In 1981, Hua Guofeng resigned from the post of chairman of the CPC Central Committee. In 1982 this position was abolished. The proponents of the reforms won the final victory.
The first stage of reforms in 1979-1984 focused on agriculture. Families, brigades or cooperatives received land in a row for up to 50 years. They handed over part of the production under a contract to the state, the rest of the harvest the peasants disposed of at their own discretion.
Since 1984, the Chinese industry has switched to new principles of work - self-sufficiency, cost accounting, independent sales of products, contracting and rental systems. The economy of the PRC began to be widely attracted foreign capital... 14 large cities and ports were declared open to him. A special province of Heinan was created, which became a completely open zone. Four special economic zones for foreign entrepreneurs were established - Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Semen, Shantou. The state had to regulate market relations.
Economic reforms provided unprecedented growth in 1980-1988 National economy... China has solved the food problem by harvesting more than 400 million tons of grain a year. Peasants' incomes have more than tripled. The average annual growth rate of gross industrial output in 1979-1988 was 12%, agriculture - 6.5%. The welfare of the townspeople has increased 2.6 times.
The 12th and 13th CPC Congresses in 1982 and 1987 approved the course of economic reforms and directed the people to build socialism with Chinese characteristics. The recognized leader of "perestroika" in China and the largest Communist Party in the world (more than 46 million people in 1987, 51 million in 1992) was Deng Xiaoping, a member of the Standing Committee of the Politburo
CPC Central Committee, who served as chairman of the Central Military Council of the PRC, chairman of the Central Commission of Advisers and other positions in the party and state. The new attitudes of the pragmatic Maoists were reflected in the Constitution of the PRC adopted in 1982.
Elements of market relations in the Chinese economy, some liberalization in the field of culture, the influence of the West caused the rise of the democratic movement, the vanguard of which was student youth and part of the intelligentsia. They demanded the democratization of the country's social system and the renunciation of the CCP's leadership role. On the night of June 3-4, 1989, Tiananmen Square was stained with the blood of students. Thousands of young people were killed. More than 120 thousand people were arrested. The West rightly condemned the Maoist massacre of the democratic movement and imposed economic sanctions against the PRC. However, Gorbachev did not condemn violations of human rights and freedoms in China.
Most of the CCP leaders were afraid of the political consequences of the reforms, and also wary of the impact of the course of Soviet perestroika on China. In mid-1988, the government sharply reduced loans to businesses and stalled reforms. The salary in the country has dropped to 200 yuan (70 marks). There was a sharp drop in industrial production.
After the June 1989 events in Tiananmen Square, Zhao Ziyang was accused of inspiring student protests. He lost his post. Jiang Zeming, a Shanghai party clerk, Deng Xiaoping's protege, became the General Secretary. Deng Xiaoping himself retired at the end of 1989, but continued to lead the CCP from behind the scenes. 1989-1992 passed in the PRC under the sign of reprisals against democrats. The struggle against "bourgeois liberalization" was intensified and a campaign was launched to "learn from Lei Feng", that is, on the example of the life of a PLA soldier. The CCP rejected political reform and did not agree to the separation of party and state power.
The recession in the economy forced the CPC leadership to declare at the XIV Congress (autumn 1992) about the continuation of reforms and the transition to "socialist market relations."
In March 1993, a session of the National People's Congress elected Jiang Zemin as President of the PRC. Li Peng was re-elected as prime minister.
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