Salt lakes of the hydrographic network of the Kerch Peninsula. Thesis: Transformation of soils and landscapes of the Kerch Peninsula at the present stage of nature management. Climate and inland waters

Ancient Taurida, Bakhchisarai fountain, Living Rocks, Bear Mountain - all the names in Crimea are surprisingly mysterious and poetic. It cannot be otherwise in this beautiful place, known since ancient times. The legends, history, nature and geography of Crimea invariably cause surprise and delight.

One glance at the map is enough to find the outline of the Crimean peninsula against the background of the blue water of the Black Sea. They resemble a bunch of ripe grapes or a bird that flies rapidly over the waves of the sea.

The Autonomous Republic of Crimea, which is part of modern Ukraine (now Russia), has its own Constitution, coat of arms and flag. The griffin depicted on the coat of arms symbolizes the connection between heaven and earth, between the western and eastern worlds. The peninsula really turned out to be at the junction of different worlds.

The southernmost point of Crimea, Cape Sarych, is only 142 miles away from Turkey. In addition to Turkey, the peninsula borders by sea with Bulgaria, Romania, Russia and Georgia. It is interesting that Crimea is at an equal distance from the North Pole and from the Equator line.

The richest place names (geographical names) of this land, as it were, recorded the history of the development of mankind and the intertwining of different cultures. Some cities, for example Theodosia (in Greek "given by God"), have retained their names since ancient times. Largest cities the capital of Crimea is Simferopol, Sevastopol, Feodosia and Kerch, each of which is associated with many beautiful Crimean legends.

Located in the south of Ukraine, the peninsula, nicknamed "the pearl of Europe", has gathered on its territory mountains and plains, extinct volcanoes, fast rivers and salt lakes, forests and steppes. The Crimea, washed by the waves of the Black and Azov Seas, is connected with the mainland only by the thin Perekop isthmus. Such an almost "insular" isolation markedly affected the animal and plant world.

Three capes - Priboyny, Sarych and Fonar - like mythical whales "support" the peninsula from different sides. The coastline stretching for 1000 km is picturesquely indented by numerous bays and coves. In the west is the long (7.5 km) and deep Sevastopol Bay, the largest in the European part of the former USSR.

The total area of ​​Crimea is about 27 thousand km2. This is commensurate with the size of Belgium and 20 times smaller than the area of ​​the Iberian Peninsula. On a small peninsula (205 km from north to south and 326 km from west to east), there is a frequent change of landscape. The main territory has a platform-flat relief and is covered with steppes and surface of lakes. Mountains occupy about a fifth of the area of ​​the peninsula.

Three parallel mountain ranges stretch for 150 km from Sevastopol in the west of Crimea to Feodosia in the east. The closer to the sea, the higher the mountains rise. The highest Main Ridge reliably hides a narrow strip of land from the cold winds at the foot of the southern steep slope - the southern coast of Crimea, which is popular with vacationers. It is here that you can see legendary scenic landscapes that have inspired poets, writers and artists.

CRIMEA RELIEF

By the nature of the relief, Crimea is divided into three main parts: the southern - mountainous, northern - flat and the Kerch Peninsula, which is distinguished by a peculiar hilly-ridge relief.

Crimean mountains occupying the smaller, southern part of the Crimean Peninsula, stretch for 160 km along the Black Sea coast from M Aya in the west to Cape Ilya in the east, reaching a maximum width of 50-60 km. Within the mountainous Crimea, the following geographical parts are distinguished: the Main Ridge, the Southern Coast and the Foothill Ridges (Inner and Outer Ridges).

Plain Crimea occupies most of the peninsula - northern and central. It is a relatively flat surface, gradually rising to the south, towards the Crimean mountains. Low-lying plains (with heights of 0.5-30 m) predominate - the Sivash, Indolskaya, Alminskaya (Evpatoria). A slightly larger area is occupied by the elevated plains - Tarkhankutskaya, Central Crimean. In general, the relief of the peninsula is favorable for agricultural land development, road construction, and construction. Plains are usually called elevated, which have a height of more than 200 m. And in the Crimea, the highest point of the Tarkhankut Upland is only 179 m (the proximity of the sea emphasizes the contrasts in the relief).

Kerch Peninsula by relief it is divided into two parts, delimited by the low Parpach ridge.

Southwest part is a gently undulating plain, the uniform appearance of which is disturbed only by individual heights. It slopes towards the sea, in the north and north-east - low mountains and limestone ridges.

For northeastern part is characterized by a hilly ridge relief. In the depressions, which are often elliptical in shape, ridges, in some places, there are hills of mud volcanoes characteristic of the peninsula.

There are more than 50 mud volcanoes on the Kerch Peninsula. The largest of them is JAU-TEPE (Vrazhya Mountain). Its height is 60 m.Diameter at the base is 500 m.On individual hills, eruptions occur constantly

At Cape Opuk on the Kerch Peninsula, there are bizarre rocks, which are one of the natural symbols of the region.

TRANSFORMATION OF SOILS AND LANDSCAPES OF THE KERCHEN PENINSULA AT THE CURRENT STAGE OF NATURE USE

Introduction

Relevance of the problem under consideration

The agricultural use of the territory belongs to the most widespread type of anthropogenic transformation. At the same time, difficulties arise in the interactions of natural and socio-economic factors. Within the boundaries of agricultural lands, natural biogeocenoses are transformed into agrocenoses, and natural landscapes - into agricultural landscapes - natural production systems that have formed and which function as a result of constant interaction between agriculture and the natural environment, natural landscape.

Soils and landscapes of the Kerch Peninsula were taken as the object of research, within which the transformation of agricultural lands was taking place.

On the basis of a preliminary study of the issue, the goal and objectives of the study were formulated.

Purpose of the study

Analyze the role of physical-geographical and technogenic factors in the formation of natural-anthropogenic transformation of soils and landscapes of the Kerch Peninsula, show the patterns of transformation processes.

To achieve the goal, the following were solved tasks:

1. Give the physical and geographical characteristics of the Kerch Peninsula, paying special attention to the factors that control the processes in the soil cover.

2. Analyze the main processes of anthropogenic transformation of soils and landscapes of the territory, periods of anthropogenic transformation, consider secondary soil processes, characterize the state of agricultural landscapes and PCTS.

3. Describe the importance of monitoring the state of the soil cover and landscapes of the territory.

In the course of the work, a link was established between land transformation and the level of agricultural activity.

The transformation of soils and landscapes of the Kerch Peninsula is a multilateral process, including the replacement of natural landscapes with natural-anthropogenic (including technogenic) ones, with a change in geocomponents due to the development of secondary processes (waterlogging, karst, dehumification, pollution, etc.).

The most powerful factor in soil transformation is irrigation, which causes a whole range of consequences, expressed in changes in the characteristics of the soil cover. The changes that have occurred under the influence of irrigation cannot be considered unequivocally negative, since the assessment itself may vary depending on the goals and objectives of the region's functioning.

Irrigated lands give higher yields, but water is not always used rationally, a lot of it is lost when irrigating with outdated types of sprinklers. About 20% of water is used for technological discharge and filtration from temporary irrigation ditches. Annual cutting and backfilling of the latter leads to the destruction and washout of the fertile surface layer of the soil.

Irrigation causes the destruction of soil aggregates, contributes to the formation of cemented (merged) fragments of the soil profile, an increase in bulk, merging, especially in chernozems. The reason for the deterioration of these properties is intra-soil weathering, redistribution of the silt fraction along the profile, alkalinization, and salinization.

The flooding of rice paddies causes the development of anaerobiosis in the surface horizons of soils, therefore, gley formation and the removal of silt, Mg, Ca from the surface horizons, and a decrease in the boiling point of carbonates. At the same time, there is a relative accumulation of silica, aggregate iron, and manganese in nodule neoplasms. The depth of soil transformation under the influence of rice sowing, their degradation is quite fast, especially in cases of non-observance of scientifically grounded agricultural technology. Already after 4 years, the changes are pronounced. Gley formation under conditions of prolonged stagnant-washing regime leads to texture-clay differentiation of the profile, bleaching of surface horizons. The features of more humid soils are acquired.

CHAPTER 1. PHYSICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TERRITORY

1.1 Geographical location

Crimea is located in the south of Ukraine within 44 ° 23 ´ (Cape Sarych) and 46 ° 15 ´ (Perekop ditch) north latitude, 32 ° 30 ´ (Cape Karamrun) and 36 ° 40 ´ (Cape Fonar) east longitude. The area of ​​the Crimean peninsula is 26.0 thousand km 2. The maximum distance from north to south is 205 km, from west to east - 325 km. The total length of the Crimean borders exceeds 2500 km. The shores of the Crimea are little cut, the Black Sea forms 3 large bays: Karkinitsky, Kalamitsky, and Feodosia; The Azov Sea also formed 3 bays: Kazantip, Arabat and Sivash.

Kerch Peninsula- the eastern part of the Crimean peninsula (Fig. 1). The length from west to east is about 90 km, from north to south from 17 to 50 km.

The area is about 2700 - 3000 km². The peninsula is washed in the north by the Sea of ​​Azov, and in the western part by the Sivash Bay, in the east by the Kerch Strait, in the south by the Black Sea. In the west, the peninsula is connected to the rest of Crimea by the Akmanai isthmus about 17 km wide. In some elevated places of the isthmus, both seas are visible at the same time: the Azov and Black seas.

1.2 Tectonics, geological structure and relief characteristics

The significance of the relief as a factor of landscape formation is enormous. It largely determines the mosaic of other landscape components. The slope of the surface determines the direction of the flow of rivers, the movement of surface loose rocks. On low plains, air masses move freely over long distances, and mountains block their path. The mountains prevent the spread of plants and animals.

The nature of the surface is of great importance for human life and economic activity. Plains are more convenient for settling people, for laying communication lines, for farming and building industrial enterprises. Mining, animal husbandry, and recreation are usually associated with mountains.

In terms of relief, the Crimean peninsula is divided into three unequal parts: the plain Crimea, the Kerch peninsula with a kind of ridge-undulating-flat surface and the mountainous Crimea. This division is primarily due to the unequal structure of the earth's crust, the history of the formation of regions.

The ridge-undulating-flat Kerch Peninsula is associated, on the one hand, with the closely located mountainous Crimea, which is complex in structure, and on the other, with the folded mountains of the Greater Caucasus. It also contains a part of the Indolo-Kuban foothill trough, common for the Crimea and the Caucasus, which is part of the Scythian platform (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Tectonics of the Kerch Peninsula

In this regard, according to the nature of the relief and geological structure, the Kerch Peninsula is divided into two parts. The southwestern part, which corresponds to the submerged part of the Crimean meganticlinorium, is composed of Maikop clays crumpled into folds. They form a slightly undulating plain. The northeastern, large part of the peninsula has a finely dissected relief. It is formed by various rocks of numerous small short anticlinal and synclinal folds of ellipsoidal outlines. The edges of the folds are composed of Miocene layered limestones, marls, sandstones and mounds of solid bryozoan reef limestones. The fold cores consist mainly of Maikop and Sarmatian clays (Fig. 3). The erosion of these pliable clays resulted in the formation of anticlinal basins with annular ridges of harder rocks (Fig. 4). In many synclinal folds, iron ore deposits and loesslike loams have accumulated. The original forms are formed by the hills of mud volcanoes.

Within the southwestern part of the Kerch Peninsula, the folds of the mountainous Crimea, ending here, sink, that is, their gradual transition to the Indolo-Kuban foothill trough of the Scythian platform is observed. In this regard, the topography of the peninsula is also divided into two parts, delimited by the low Parpach ridge. The southwestern part is a gently undulating plain, the uniform appearance of which is disturbed only by isolated uplands (Konchek, Dyurmen, Dzhau-Tepe mud hill). The folds here are formed by easily eroded, so-called Maikop, clays, so for a long time they turned out to be eroded and the surface of this area acquired the appearance of a hilly plain slightly inclined towards the sea. The northeastern part is characterized by a hilly ridge relief. Most of the ridges are elongated and short. The vaults and cores (central parts) of these folds are in most cases composed of soft clays and therefore, breaking down faster, are expressed in the relief by erosion valleys (depressions) bordered by limestone ring-shaped ridges.

Rice. 3. Pre-Quaternary deposits of the Kerch Peninsula.

Rice. 4. Diagram of the relationship of horizons in the folds of the Kerch Peninsula in the section through the Kerch syncline: 1-Upper Pliocene; 2-middle Pliocene; 3-pontic tier; 4-meotic tier: a-clays, b-limestones, c-reef limestones; 5-sarmatian; 6-middle Miocene; 7-Maikop series; 8-volcanic deposits.

The slopes of the ridges facing the inner depressions are usually rocky and steep, while the opposite, scattering along the periphery, are gentle and often form a complex system of processes. In this case, the ridges are formed by bryozoan reefs of the former Meotic Sea (Upper Tertiary). These reef ridges, being natural monuments, are of great scientific interest.

The highest point of the Kerch Peninsula - Mount Pikhbopai (190 m`) - is crowned by the Mithridat ridge near Kerch. Limestones of the Kerch ridges are an excellent building stone. They are also used as fluxes in the production of sinter from the Kerch iron ore at the Kamysh-Burunsky iron ore plant.

The vast expanses of the Kerch hills abound with original landforms associated with mud volcanic activity. The eruptions of ancient mud volcanoes contributed to the formation of extensive subsidence depressions in the relief, which were filled with hummock deposits (breccia). Some of the active mud hills are interesting natural monuments that imitate real volcanoes in miniature (Fig. 5).

Mud volcanoes, otherwise called salsa or hills, have nothing to do with real volcanism. They illustrate the oil and gas potential of the Kerch Peninsula, spewing cold mud squeezed out of the bowels of the earth's crust by combustible natural gases. Due to the periodic outpouring of mud, spreading far along the sides from the hole - the crater, the area adjacent to the hill cones usually has a lifeless dull look. Only in the craters does liquid mud slowly pulsate under the pressure of gases. Currently, on the Kerch Peninsula, you can find more than 30 mud hills and vast hillside fields. Mud hills are usually small, varied in shape and rise from 2-3 to 50 m above the surrounding area.

Mud volcanoes of the Kerch Peninsula form a number of isolated groups near the villages of Bondarenkovo, Opasnoe, Mayak, near Kerch and other places. Each of them has several hills, on the slopes of which there are usually from 1 to 15 or more craters.

Hill mud plays an essential role in the formation of the modern topography of the Kerch Peninsula. They include silica, alumina, red iron ore, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide and other components. At present, the mud is partially used in brick-tile production and for medicinal purposes. However, the most interesting of the mud hills of the Kerch Peninsula must be preserved as scientific and educational objects.

1.3 Climate and inland waters

Climate

Climate is one of the most important factors in the formation of landscapes. It affects, first of all, seasonal variations in the direction and intensity of the formation of their relief, parent rocks, surface and ground waters, soils, flora and fauna. The climate as a whole determines the main regularity of the geography of landscapes - their latitudinal zoning. Climatic resources and conditions also determine the living conditions of human economic activity. In turn, the climate is one of the immaterial energy components of the landscape, as it reflects, first of all, the temperature and windy properties of the surface layer of the atmosphere. In this regard, the properties of the climate and their changes are best understood indirectly through the state and direction of changes in other material components of the landscape, for example, vegetation and soil cover. The climate of any territory is formed by three interconnected atmospheric processes: heat exchange, moisture circulation and general atmospheric circulation.

The climate of the Kerch Peninsula is moderately continental, experiencing the softening influence of the Black and Azov seas. The average annual air temperature is + 11 ° С, the lowest in January is -0.5 ° С, the highest - in July +22.8 ° С (Table 1). The average annual temperature of sea water in the surface layer is + 12.7 ° С. The lowest average monthly air temperature in January -8.4 ° С was recorded in 1972, the highest + 6.6 ° С - in 1915.The lowest average monthly temperature in July +20.3 ° С was observed in 1912, the highest +26.6 ° С - in 1938

The absolute minimum air temperature - 26.3 ° С was recorded on February 6, 1954, the absolute maximum - 37.4 ° С - on July 28, 1971.

Table 1 Air temperature by months (° С)

Temperature.	I	II	III	IV	V	VI	Vii	VIII	IX	X	XI	XII	Year
Average	-0,5	0,0	3,2	9,8	15,4	20,1	22,8	22,2	17,6	11,4	6,7	2,9	11
Daily max.	2	3	6	12	18	23	26	26	21	15	10	6	14
Night min.	-3	-2	0	7	12	17	20	19	15	9	4	0	8

In the last 100–120 years, the air temperature has tended to rise. During this period, the average annual air temperature increased by approximately 1.0 ° C. The highest temperature rise occurred in the first half of the year. The Kerch Peninsula is located in the southern part of the temperate climatic zone, which is characterized by mild, cloudy winters and very warm, dry summers. In winter, stormy cold northeastern winds are noted. The frequent passage of cyclones at this time ensures unstable weather. In summer, the weather is usually calm and clear. For almost the entire year, north-eastern and eastern winds prevail over the Kerch Peninsula (Table 2). The highest wind speed is in February, the lowest is in September. In January it is on average 5.8 m / s, in July - 4.6 m / s (Table 3).

Table 2 Frequency of wind in different directions, (%)

Table 3 Wind speed by months, (m / s)

I	II	III	IV	V	VI	Vii	VIII	IX	X	XI	XII	Year
5,8	5,9	5,7	5,0	4,5	4,4	4,6	4,5	4,3	4,6	4,9	5,3	5,0

According to the weather station, Kerch.

The average monthly wind speed during the year is 3-7 m / s, and in the cold period it is higher than in the warm one. Calms are rare, their frequency usually does not exceed 10%. In summer, winds with a speed of 17 m / s and more are noted when cold fronts pass. Most often they are squally in nature and are accompanied by thunderstorms and downpours. A high air temperature is usually observed in front of squalls. Breezes in the warm season are observed along the entire coast of the peninsula. The sea breeze sets in by noon and reaches its maximum development by 4 pm By 7 pm it weakens and stops after sunset. The coastal breeze begins to blow from midnight and lasts until about 8-10 hours. The average speed of the sea breeze is 3-4 m / s, the coastal breeze is 1-3 m / s.

The annual number of days with fog ranges from 30 to 55. The highest frequency of fog is observed from October to April. From May to August, fogs are rare and do not happen every year. During this period, fog in most cases occurs at night and in the morning in calm, clear weather.

The annual amount of precipitation is 434 mm on average, the least of them is in October, the most is in December (Table 4).

Table 4 Average precipitation, (mm)

I	II	III	IV	V	VI	Vii	VIII	IX	X	XI	XII	Year
34	31	28	30	36	48	33	44	36	26	37	51	434

According to the weather station, Kerch.

The minimum annual precipitation (207 mm) was observed in 1885, the maximum (777 mm) in 1925. The maximum daily precipitation (146 mm) was recorded on June 6, 1945. On average, 103 days with precipitation are observed in the city per year; the least of them (5) in August, the most (14) - in December. The relative air humidity averages 77% per year, the lowest in July (66%), and the highest in December.

Inland waters.

The water in the landscape, like the blood in the body, provides it with life. In addition, it serves as a source for the formation of water resources, which are so necessary for humans and the economy. Intensification of agriculture, land reclamation measures have an impact on the conditions for the formation and quality of surface and inland waters. Consequently, the protection, rational use of soil moisture resources of landscapes should be a constant concern of not only agriculture, but also water management.

Moisture reserves in the landscape depend, on the one hand, on the amount of atmospheric precipitation, condensation moisture, water inflow by surface and underground routes, and on the other, on its evaporation, surface and underground runoff.

On the Kerch Peninsula, taking into account all low-water and dry gullies, the density of the river network reaches 0.15-0.28 km / km² (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. Hydrographic network of the Crimean peninsula.

The beams of the Kerch Peninsula are longer in its northern and northeastern parts. The longest of them are Samarli (51 km), Ali-Bai, Sarayminskaya and others. With a considerable degree of convention, only one river can be named here - Melek-Cheshme, in the valley of which the hero-city of Kerch is located. There is water in the river only for several months of the year.

According to the conditions of groundwater distribution, the Kerch Peninsula is divided into two parts. In the southwestern part of the peninsula, there are practically no operational reserves of groundwater due to the fact that it consists of waterproof Maikop clays. In the northeastern part, there are a number of isolated small artesian basins in local synclines-troughs. Groundwater recharge here occurs mainly within the local anticlines and synclinal sides.

The North Crimean Canal is of great national economic importance (Fig. 7).

Dnieper water came to Crimea on October 17, 1963. In 1975, the construction of the first stage of the canal was completed. The hero city of Kerch received the Dnieper water. The canal is the largest structure of its kind in Europe. To improve water supply to the population, primarily the cities of Feodosia and Kerch, near them at the village. For the front, large reservoirs have been created, which are filled with the waters of the canal in spring and autumn. In summer, water is supplied for irrigation, and in winter the bed of the canal is without water: it is being repaired.

1.4 Vegetation

Plant communities play an important role in landscapes. In the process of development, they simultaneously adapt to changes in other components of natural complexes and, conversely, actively transform and stabilize them for themselves (preventing, for example, the development of soil erosion). In this way, communities most fully reflect the trend of landscape development under the influence of both natural processes and human activity. Consequently, plant communities, developing under the influence of other landscape components, simultaneously act as a factor in the protection of resources, the environment and the reproduction of the landscapes themselves.

In Crimea, botanists count 2602 species of wild plants, and together with cultivated ones - over 3600 species of plants - ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms.

About 1200 plant species belonging to 80 families and 433 genera are known within the Kerch Peninsula. Essentially, there is only one type of vegetation here - the steppe type of vegetation. A significant part of the territory of the Kerch Peninsula is currently plowed up for grain and industrial crops, as well as vineyards. The areas left unplowed are intensively used as grazing land.

The Kerch Peninsula is characterized by a combination of various types of steppes (desert, petrophytic, typical, meadow) and halophytic meadows. This region, quite variegated in composition of vegetation, is, in turn, subdivided into sub-regions: a) southwestern, a feature of which is a combination of halophytic meadows and desert steppes; b) eastern, almost entirely represented by meadow steppes; c) northern, where feather-grass-fescue steppes prevail, although there are petrophytic and psammophytic steppes, and halophytic meadows (Fig. 8).

True (typical) steppes are characterized by the complete predominance of perennial xerophilous plants (i.e., plants of arid habitats), mainly grasses, in the herbage, of which the most common are four species of feather grass and fescue. The grass stand of typical steppes is somewhat sparse (in most cases, it does not completely cover the soil), about 40-50 cm high. The upper layer is composed mainly of feather grass or tyrsa, the lower layer is dominated by fescue. Among the less significant, but constant components of the steppe, one can name such grasses as keleria, wheatgrass, bulbous bluegrass, and among the herbs - sage, adonis, tulip, zopnik, from legumes - clover, alfalfa. The appearance of some plants is associated with grazing; such are, for example, spurge, Austrian flax. These plants are not eaten by livestock, and therefore their role in the composition of the herbage is often increased due to cereals and other, better eaten forbs.

Rice. 8. Vegetation of the Kerch Peninsula.

Petrophytic steppes. Plants of stony habitats are called petrophytic (group petra - rock, stone + group fiton - plant). The grass stand of these steppes is sparse. Although it is also dominated by feather grass, fescue, and keleria, along with these steppe grasses and common forbs for the steppes, semi-shrubs, characteristic of heavily degraded soils, are constantly encountered. These are some types of thyme, dubrovnik, gorse, sunflower. Wormwood - Caucasian and Lerha wormwood are especially distinguished. The category of petrophytic steppes also includes areas occupied by peculiar communities with a predominance of Crimean asphodeline - a tall (up to 50-60 cm), spring-blooming plant from the lily family. Such asphodeline communities seem to be "related" to the steppe Crimea with mountainous.

The rarest lichen of Crimea - roccella fucus-shaped - is found on Mount Opuk. Roccella is a relict lower plant, known from the Paleogene, that is, for 65 million years. This brownish plant is found in the Mediterranean region, Africa, Central and South America, as well as Australia. In the CIS countries, it is found only on the Kerch Peninsula and on the Karadag.

Psammophytic steppes are completely associated with sandy or sandy-shell rock soils that form on the sea coasts. They are found in very small, fragmented areas, where the conditions for their preservation were more or less favorable (lack of grazing, plowing, intensive beach use of the sandy coast). At present, such fragments of psammophytic steppes are still preserved in some places on the northern coast of the Kerch Peninsula (the coast of the Kazantip Bay). In these communities, the grass stand is rather dense, its height is 45-50 cm. The predominant are special grasses that are very characteristic of sandy soils - sandy fescue, Dnieper feather grass. No less characteristic of such habitats is the Colchis sedge with thin long cord-like rhizomes, chondrilla, thistle, pig, plantain, Russian umbilical, and blackhead. Together with these plants, shrubs - tamariks, sometimes growing in the form of small trees - are common here.

Desert steppes. The most characteristic feature of desert steppes is a significant thinning of their herbage, in the composition of which Crimean semi-shrub wormwood always participates in significant quantities, although steppe grasses (fescue, feather grass, wheat grass) retain their dominant position, but only in those cases when the desert-steppe community does not disturbed by long grazing. Under the influence of grazing, grasses fall out of the grass stand, and wormwood takes on the role of the dominant plant.

Since the desert steppes are characterized by solonetzic soils, their herbage contains some salt-resistant plants that have adapted to life on salt marshes, also called halophytes. Among them are kochia, camphorosma, petrosimonia, saltros and hodgepodge. In autumn, in October-November, under the influence of low temperatures, solyanka take on a wide variety of colors - from lilac and crimson to pink and lemon-yellow. Experiments carried out on saltwort, a small (10-30 cm in height) leafless annual with very juicy jointed shoots, showed that salinization has a stimulating effect on the growth and development of this plant: in the absence of a sufficient salt concentration in the nutrient solution, the growth of the saltwort was greatly slowed down.

Halophytic meadows belong to a special category, as salt-resistant (halophytic) plants prevail in their composition. The most typical for halophytic meadows are communities dominated by a small gramine - rattle, along with which another squat halophilic grass, coastal, is often found in the herbage. Plants typical for salt marshes are quite common here - salicornia, petrosimonia. Other plants include wheatgrass, wheatgrass, and from legumes, some types of clover. Note, by the way, that the Crimea is especially rich in wild-growing clovers - there are about 30 species of them! Reeds grow in wetlands. In some places, thorns form very dense thickets.

Medicinal plants of the Kerch Peninsula, adopted by the pharmacopoeia: black henbane, adonis, or adonis, St. John's wort, yarrow, celandine, chamomile, immortelle, shepherd's purse, coltsfoot, thyme, string, plantain (Fig. 9).

Poisonous plants of the Kerch Peninsula are represented by several types: black henbane, common dope, spotted hemlock, common privet.

Black henbane is a biennial herb with an unpleasant odor. It grows in weedy places, in vegetable gardens. The flowers are large, dirty yellow with purple veins. The fruit is a jug-shaped box surrounded by a thorny cup. The seeds are small, like poppy seeds. The whole plant is very poisonous, with a severe form of poisoning, death occurs within the first day from respiratory paralysis.

Datura ordinary, or stinking dope is an annual herb up to 1.5 m high. The leaves are larger, petiolate, deeply notched. The flowers are large, fragrant, white, funnel-shaped. The fruit is a round, prickly capsule. The seeds are large, black. The whole plant has a strong tobacco-like odor. The whole plant is poisonous.

Spotted hemlock is a biennial herb. The stem is high, up to 1.5 m, completely naked, at the base with dark red spots. The leaves are dark above, light green below. Complex umbrellas with seven to ten beams, slightly convex. The whole plant has a heavy "mouse" odor. It grows in open places near roads, near dwellings, in landfills, in vegetable gardens, in ravines. The whole plant is poisonous, it is especially dangerous if the poison gets into the stomach. The poison is easily absorbed into the bloodstream.

Common privet is a branched shrub. Leaves are lanceolate, leathery. The flowers are white, small, fragrant, similar to lilac flowers. The fruit is a dryish black leathery berry. The seeds are purple. The plant is used for hedges. Leaves and fruits of the plant are poisonous.

1.5 Characteristics of the soil cover

The formation of soils proceeds continuously along with the development of landscapes. Therefore, the well-known soil scientist V.V. Dokuchaev called the soil "the mirror of the landscape." The soil-forming process includes a variety of chemical, physical and biological phenomena, that is, the decay of plant and animal organisms, minerals and rocks, the formation of humus and secondary minerals. The climate determines the duration and intensity of biological processes of soil formation and determines the main regularity of the geography of soils - their latitudinal zoning.

In Crimea, the most widespread zonal soils are chernozems. On the Kerch Peninsula, on the Maikop and Sarmatian clays, solonetzic merged residual saline clay chernozems were formed. For their reclamation, deep plantation plowing and plastering are required.

In the northeastern part of the Kerch Peninsula, carbonate chernozems, low-humus heavy loamy and light clayey, to varying degrees, rubble and pebble on the weathering products of carbonate and carbonate rocks are widespread. They are spread over an area of ​​over 240 thousand hectares.

On the territory of the plains of the Kerch Peninsula, chestnut soils have formed under wormwood-fescue-feather grass dry steppe communities on flat interfluvial spaces. They are presented in two subtypes: dark chestnut and chestnut. The area of ​​the former is over 225 thousand hectares, and the second is only 8 thousand hectares. The most widespread (about 195 thousand hectares) are dark chestnut weakly and medium solonetzic soils and their combinations with steppe solonetz soils. To increase fertility, it is recommended to carry out their deep plowing and plastering. The soils are suitable for irrigation. At the same time, strict control over changes in the level of groundwater is necessary in order to prevent their secondary salinization.

In gullies, hollows, depressions of the Kerch Peninsula, meadow-chestnut solonetzic soils and their combinations with meadow-steppe solonetzes are widespread.

On the Kerch Peninsula, salt licks and salt marshes are also common. Saline soils are often formed as a result of desalinization of salt marshes. Solonetz soils are unfavorable for growing crops. The arable layer in them in a wet state floats, the dried one is covered with a dense crust, cracks.

Saline soils are saline soils in which readily soluble salts (more than 1%) are contained in their entire profile. This concentration of salts is generally harmful to plants. Salt marshes are not suitable for agricultural use.

There are also meadow soils. They are formed under meadow vegetation under the influence of fresh groundwater, mainly in river valleys and in gullies (Fig. 10).

Rice. 10. Soils of the Kerch Peninsula.

1.6 Characteristics of the landscapes of the territory

A geographic landscape is a natural geographic complex in which all the main components: relief, climate, water, soil, vegetation and fauna are in complex interaction and interdependence, forming a single inextricable system.

The land surface is the place of the most active interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, spheres of human life and activities. Territorial differences in the properties of surface rocks, surface layers of air, surface and underground waters, vegetation and fauna as parts of integral natural formations have led to the emergence of qualitatively different landscape complexes of various sizes and complexity of the internal structure (for example, tundra, taiga, steppes, deserts, savannas, equatorial forests, etc.) Together, they formed a mosaic structure of the nature of the earth's surface. The leading role in the isolation of the main units of landscape complexes, according to most scientists, belongs to geological and relief factors. Under their influence, water is redistributed, local climates, vegetation, soils and other natural components of smaller landscape complexes, and the conditions for their use by humans are formed.

The nature of the Kerch Peninsula is extremely unique and varied. It combines landscape complexes characteristic of the Sivash region, the Tarkhankut peninsula and the foothills of the Crimea. The landscape originality of the peninsula is mainly due to the sharp difference in the properties of the rocks common here and the relief forms formed by them.

Zonal systems of the Kerch Peninsula are formed within the hydromorphic and upland landscape levels.

The hydromorphic level is represented by fragments of low-lying plains on the Kerch Peninsula. The lowlands have a flat character with a pronounced microrelief, which determines the geochemical heterogeneity of the soil cover.

The plakorny level is an upland part of the Kerch Peninsula. This level is distinguished by valley-girder and denudation-remnant relief. According to G.E. Grishankov, differentiation into zones within the hydromorphic and upland landscape levels occurs in connection with the depth of the groundwater level. The differences between the soils of these zones are within the adjacent latitudinal-zonal types. However, it should be noted that zonal steppe soils are formed in an automorphic regime, i.e. when the groundwater level is deeper than 7 m (Table 5).

Table 5 Conditionality of soils of the Kerch Peninsula by natural factors

The basis of the landscape complexes of the gently undulating Southwestern Plain is formed by saline Maikop clays, and the elliptical ridges and the crowning hills of the northeastern part of the peninsula are layered and bryozoan reef Neogene limestones. In anticlinal depressions, clayey Maikop and Sarmatian ones are widespread, and in synclines there are Pliocene sands and clays, as well as anthropogenic loess-like loams.

The climate is very dry, moderately hot, with mild winters. The degree of variegation of the properties of local landscape complexes reflects relatively well the variety of salinity degrees, thickness, combinations of southern chernozems, chestnut solonetzic soils, solonetz and salt marshes.

Within the Kerch Peninsula, there are two physical and geographical regions: South-West and North-East. The share of arable land in the region is only about 35%, which is the smallest value among other areas of the steppe Crimea.

The Kerch Peninsula is rich in natural monuments. There are 9 landscape and 5 adjacent coastal aquatic protected natural boundaries. Among them are the Astana floodplains with an abundance of migratory and nesting waterfowl, mud hills of Dzhau-Tepe, Andrusov, Vernadsky, Obruchev, forest parks near the village. Lenino, paleontological monument at Cape Chauda, ​​etc.

CHAPTER 2. BASIC PROCESSES OF ANTHROPOGENIC TRANSFORMATION OF SOILS AND LANDSCAPES OF THE TERRITORY

2.1 The state of agricultural landscapes. Characteristics of PCTS

Agricultural use of the territory is the most common form of anthropogenic transformation of natural landscapes. At the same time, the influence of agricultural activity on landscapes occurs in several directions:

Spatial and functional restructuring of the landscape structure and its individual components;

Removal of a part of biological products;

The introduction of matter and energy into the landscape;

Creation of engineering structures and the use of mechanized technologies (brings the greatest impact on the components of the landscape);

As a result of this relationship between agricultural production and landscapes, agrolandscape systems (agrolandscapes) are formed. In modern geographical science, the agricultural landscape is defined in its most general form as a natural production system, which in its structure consists of two interconnected blocks (subsystems): natural and agricultural.

A necessary condition for the development of agriculture is the use of land as a mode of production. To a large extent, the structure, dynamics of functioning, tendencies of development of agricultural landscapes are influenced by natural and geographical properties, features and components of the basic natural basis (hydrogeology, geomorphology, soil cover, microclimate). On the other hand, under the influence of human activity, landscapes are formed, which, despite their natural character and dependence on natural laws, also have an “anthropogenic” component in the form of cultivated plants, altered soil properties, and altered ground and surface water regimes. Agricultural landscapes undergo especially intensive changes with the use of active and long-term reclamation. And although the production components of agricultural landscapes make it possible to largely regulate and manage natural processes on cultivated lands, in most cases it is not possible to compensate for the costs to which the natural subsystem is subjected.

Natural ecosystems, transformed as a result of agricultural activities, slowly lose the ability to self-regulate and implement adaptive links with the environment. They become at first partially, and then completely dependent on the person. As a result, agroecosystems are formed different levels anthropogenic transformation:

1. Quasi-natural - agroecosystems that are closest to natural ecosystems, which are self-regulating and differ only in slightly disturbed vegetation cover (natural meadows with moderate cattle grazing)

2. Semi-natural - moderately and severely disturbed ecosystems capable of partial self-regulation (improved hayfields and pastures)

3. Anthropogenic ecological complexes - agroecosystems, heavily modified or created by man, the functioning of which takes place with the obligatory participation of man and under her control (crop rotation fields with the introduction of fertilizers, perennial plantations, fields of irrigated agriculture).

Such artificial ecological complexes are unstable complexes of loosely interconnected living organisms, which are only marginally capable of self-regulation, and the renewal of the main components of their biota and the regular repetition of biological cycles is possible only with the active participation of humans.

As a result, a natural territorial complex becomes a real object of land use as a dialectical set of interrelated components. Therefore, during reclamation, it is necessary to reorganize its functioning expediently by influencing mainly moisture exchange, biogenic components, partly on geochemical features and gravitational processes. In most cases, the cause of failures and mistakes is a one-sided approach to land reclamation, when not the agricultural landscape as a whole, but only its separate component is considered as an object.

The analysis of modern research has shown that the agrolandscape approach, which allows you to learn the whole complex of natural-geographical and economic components, as well as to discover their internal and external connections, the dynamics of changes in the landscape, is the most promising in the search for new principles of the agricultural organization of the territory. Most researchers emphasize the following provisions of agricultural landscape land management:

The foundation on which the farming system is formed, regardless of the category of land users and forms of ownership, should be an ecologically balanced soil protection organization of the territory;

The agrotechnical or technological block (structure of cultivated areas, crop rotation, soil cultivation, land reclamation systems) must correspond to the created soil and water protection structure of the agricultural landscape.

Geographers insist on the need for a transition to landscape-contour and reclamation-contour land use systems common in all developed countries of the world. Such developments were supported by the majority of agricultural specialists, and at this time the so-called agrolandscape territorial organization is gradually being introduced. countryside... The agrolandscape organization of the territory combines the principles of landscape and reclamation-contour land use, on the one hand, and the formation of national, regional and local systems of ecological networks, on the other. The agrolandscape organization of rural areas is the basis for sustainable development of the country as a whole and its individual regions.

Thus, the relevance of the development of methods of applied zoning on an agrolandscape basis for the purposes of agriculture and, in particular, for conducting a cadastre of agricultural lands, is due to the need to develop new, integrated approaches to the organization of the territory, since most components of the natural environment.

The general model of the natural-economic system, where the economic and natural subsystems form an integral unity, and the anthropogenic factor is an internal element of the development of the system, was proposed by G.I.Shwebs. According to the author, the integrated development of the territory is faced with objects of two types: on the one hand, complexes poorly transformed by economic activity, the properties and functioning of which are determined by the natural setting, on the other hand, natural-economic formations (systems) secondary to natural complexes. GI Schwebs understands the form of existence and development of the geographic environment in its integrity and concreteness by the natural-economic territorial system (PCTS). PCTS form a hierarchical system. An elementary unit is called a natural-economic contour (PX-contour), and units of a higher rank include a natural-economic massif (PX-massif), a natural-economic area (PX-area), a natural-economic area (PX-area) and natural and economic district (PH-district). So, PCTS is a functioning whole, changing the natural basis, participating in the formation of an anthropogenic landscape and a technological product of economic activity.

All PCTS can be divided, depending on the degree and direction of economic impact, into three types:

1) natural weakly transformed;

2) constructive;

3) derivatives, with varying degrees of degradation of PCTS.

Naturally poorly transformed PCTS (forest, steppe, desert, nature conservation, etc.) are experiencing an ever-increasing influence of the anthropogenic factor. This led to a directed change in natural landscapes and the acquisition of new properties by them, contributing to the preservation of the landscape complex in the changed conditions.

The constructive ones include PCTS created according to a certain special project... These are recreational, park, residential, industrial, agrolandscape, etc. In contrast to natural, these PCTS are regulated by the direction, nature and strength of impact. One of the tasks of their creation is to develop a mechanism for combining natural and economic subsystems.

When constructive PCTS interacts with natural ones, a type of PCTS derivatives is formed. They arise spontaneously, as a result of impact, during fundamental disturbances of natural landscapes and the formation of degraded geosystems in their place (stages of digression of the original geosystems as a result of pasture or other load), that is, when changes have covered all components, forming a new geosystem.

2.2 Soil transformation

Agroeconomic assessment of soils

In the agroeconomic assessment of soil resources, the object of assessment is the soil, the subject is agricultural crops.

The specificity of this assessment lies in the priority of identifying the level of potential soil fertility and taking into account its relative nature, which is associated with the unequal requirements of different cultures for edaphic growing conditions. Therefore, the main criterion for this assessment is static (time-stable) soil properties correlated with plant productivity. Indicators of natural soil properties characterize the level of potential fertility, which at the same time depends on secondary soil processes developing during the economic use of land. To date, the theoretical foundations for assessing soil fertility have already been developed, methods for assessing soil resources have been created and introduced into the assessment practice.

An indicator of the quality of soils (the level of potential fertility) is the bonitet score in relation to the best (reference) soil, the score of which is taken equal to 100. The reference indicators of soil properties for each crop are different and correspond to its requirements for the edaphic environment. As the static properties of soils, not only those that are stable in time, but also fairly fully reflect the essence of soil fertility, were taken: the content of humus (%), physical clay (%), the thickness of the humus horizon (cm). Such properties of the soil environment as low profile thickness, erosion, skeleton, solonetzicity, salinity and some others that negatively affect growth, development, and, consequently, the yield and its quality, were taken into account using correction factors.

Table 6 shows the results of an agroecological assessment of normally developed soils in relation to the main agricultural crops grown on the Kerch Peninsula.

Table 6 Potential fertility (in points) of soils of the Kerch Peninsula for major crops

All the soils discussed above are widely used in agriculture (Figure 11).

Rice. 11. Plowing up of the Crimean lands (% of the total area of ​​agricultural land).

The most heavily plowed up 80-90% of the eastern part of the Kerch Peninsula. Also pretty much plowed up central part peninsula - 60-80%. The western part is plowed to a lesser extent - 60%, as well as the coast of the seas - 40-50%.

Most of the arable land area is subject to negative processes and phenomena, intensified by economic activity.

Secondary soil processes

The involvement of natural ecosystems in the economic sphere inevitably leads to a change in landscape conditions, which can cause the emergence of new, secondary soil processes, the transformation of the structure of the soil cover and the formation of natural landscapes of natural economic systems in place: agricultural landscapes, residential, industrial, transport and communication, environmental protection and others.

Agricultural use of the territory is one of the most widespread types of anthropogenic transformations of soil resources.

Along with the simplification of the soil cover during its plowing, in large areas, the development of secondary degradation processes is observed, such as alkalinization, salinization, gleying, salinization, merging, pollution with ballast components of fertilizers, residual amounts of pesticides, etc. (Fig. 12).

On the Kerch Peninsula, negative processes occur such as secondary salinization (southwestern part of the peninsula), erosion (western and eastern parts), deflation (central part), alkalinization (north-eastern and central parts), dehumification (eastern and western parts), fusion (central part).

The plowing of land contributed to the manifestation of deflationary and erosion processes. There is a tendency for a further increase in the area of ​​deflated and eroded lands. The use of heavy tillage equipment in the fields leads to soil compaction, the formation of a plow "bottom", merged "paths" in perennial plantations, as a result of which a technogenic microcomplexity of the soil cover is formed.

Rice. 12. Geography of negative processes in the soil cover of Crimea

Legend: 1-boundaries of soil areas with the same negative processes; negative soil processes: 2 - flooding; 3 - secondary salinization; 4 - alkalinization; 5 - soda development; 6 - removal of water-soluble compounds during irrigation; 7 - malting; 8 - crusting; 9 - colmatage; 10 - gleying; 11 - erosion; 12 - local manifestation of the process; 13 - slitization; 14 - violation of the soil profile; 15 - deflation; 16 - chemical pollution; 17 - dehumification; 18 - burial of soil by mudflows; 19 - landslides; 20 - secondary karst.

Influence of irrigation on soil processes

Irrigation is one of the most powerful types of anthropogenic impact on geochemical and geophysical processes in landscapes. In the soils of eastern Crimea, where irrigation is widely used, this type of reclamation significantly affects the nature of soil processes. Increased moisture, unusual for the natural genesis of these soils, creates tendencies for profound changes in the direction and intensity of chemical, physicochemical, physical, biological and other soil processes. In most cases, secondary processes occurring in irrigated soils are assessed as degradation. The most important of them are salinization, alkalinization, agro-irrigation compaction, dehumification, and the loss of an agronomically valuable structure. On a geological time scale, these processes are relatively fast. Secondary processes, later in the developmental stage, often manifest themselves such as gleying, soling, and lithization. The lands of the Kerch Peninsula are irrigated mainly from the system of the North Crimean Canal (Fig. 13).

Rice. 13. Irrigated lands of Crimea (% of the total area of ​​agricultural land of farms)

The total area of ​​irrigated lands on the Kerch Peninsula reaches 20%. The efficiency of irrigated land use is shown in Table 7.

Table 7 Efficiency of using irrigated land, water and electricity for irrigation in the Kerch Peninsula

All of the above facts force us to look for new methods of irrigating the lands of the Crimea and alternatives to using the water of the North Crimean Canal as a whole. One of the methods of irrigation that completely eliminates soil erosion is the "alternative irrigation project". It consists in the following: when preparing the soil for sowing, granules with moisture contained in them are laid in the ground, in which, if necessary, mineral salts and trace elements are also dissolved.

On contact with the soil, the pellet shells are destroyed, thus releasing the contents and moisturizing the peri-root system. The granules are selected with walls of different thickness in accordance with the development periods of different plants. This project solves the problem of growing rice as a moisture-loving crop (now there is a question of stopping rice cultivation in Crimea due to lack of fresh water).

The monetary costs of the project are much less than the amount required for the annual maintenance of the CCC irrigation system. The cost of the project according to the business plan is 10.3 mln. dollars for 6 years (1.5-2.5 million dollars per year), taking into account the development of technology for the manufacture and introduction of moisture carriers into the soil, and the creation of an experimental batch of the corresponding equipment and new agricultural machinery. The author of the project is the late Academician of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine V.I. Belyaev, who represented this project at the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, but the Innovation Fund of Ukraine did not find funds to finance the project. Thus, it remained untested.

Another method, alternative to the use of the Dnieper water, is the method of desalination of seawater, which is not in short supply in Crimea. But again, for its development, large cash infusions are needed for the purchase of equipment and the construction of desalination plants. However, this is more advisable than transporting water from other sources. But the problem of replacing fresh water supply with sea water, that is, the direct use of sea water, is especially urgent for coastal regions. Foreign experience The United States, Saudi Arabia and Japan on the use of seawater for industrial purposes hopes that in the Crimea, the use of the colossal resources of seawater will reduce the shortage of fresh water.

In any case, the government of Ukraine should pay attention to this problem and choose ways to develop the Crimean water sector.

If this is the further operation of the SCC, then it is necessary to ensure monitoring of the system and timely high-quality Maintenance, the full implementation of repair and restoration work to maintain the components of the canal in working order, otherwise, after the destruction of the entire complex, it will be beyond the power of either Crimea or Ukraine to restore it.

If the path of alternative methods is chosen, then it is necessary to ensure the filling of the Innovation Fund to support the development of scientific research.

In both cases, changes are needed, otherwise, if we close our eyes to the problem of water use in Crimea, this can lead to irreversible processes that will affect all spheres of the economy and life of Crimea.

Anthropogenic transformation of soils

Anthropogenic transformation of soils is usually understood as a directed change in their characteristics, which occurs under the influence of anthropogenic factors. Transformation, in contrast to the dynamics of properties, is characterized by a stable transformation of an object. The degree of anthropogenic transformation of lands is determined not only by the nature of use and the force of economic impact on them, but also by the whole complex of properties on which the sustainability of landscapes depends.

The concept of stability of geosystems is based on the concept of dynamic equilibrium as a form of their existence. In assessing stability, the properties of plasticity, inertness, buffering are used, that is, the ability of geosystems to preserve the structural and functional core in changing conditions environment and return to its original state. Stability is provided by reversible, predominantly cyclical, processes that manifest themselves in stabilizing dynamics and in the ability to recover after unloading. The criteria for assessing sustainability are different depending on the natural characteristics of the gyosystems.

For the steppes on the plains, stability is largely due to the direction of the water-salt regime of soils, the capacity of the colloidal complex of soils, their buffering capacity, which in turn is determined by the composition of absorbed bases and the degree of humus content.

An integral indicator of the stability of geosystems, obviously, can serve as a stable bioproductivity corresponding to the level of fertility of specific soils as components of specific landscapes. The more stable the geosystem, the lower the degree of its transformation, even under strong economic pressure. Therefore, the transformation of agricultural lands should be understood as changes in their properties in comparison with the initial state (natural landscape) with the inability to fully restore these properties after the termination of loads. In addition, this refers to the degree of deviation of the quality of agricultural land from the best option cultural landscape in which the manifestations of negative soil processes are minimal.

The process of changing landscapes followed a change in the socio-economic situation in the Crimea, the settlement and development of its territory. The use of data on the past stages of the development of Crimea will allow in the future to more accurately solve the problems of forecasting and operational management landscapes. Many authors have paid attention to the study of the impact of long-term use of land on landscapes and soil cover of individual territories of Crimea. This allows the process of anthropogenic transformation of Crimean soils to be conventionally divided into several stages.

First step.

Minimal impact on the Crimean soils (100–35 thousand years ago).

For a long time, the most ancient man had a minimal impact on nature, since his main occupation was gathering and hunting.

Second phase.

Insignificant impact on the soils of Crimea (35-3 thousand years ago).

During this period, hunting and cattle breeding formed the basis of the economy in the Crimea. The population density was low. Its indicator was equal to 1 person per 25 km 2.

Stage three.

Variable-active impact on the soils of the Crimea (3-1 millennium BC)

At the end of the Neolithic era (3.2-1.9 thousand years ago), developed agriculture was formed in the Crimea (the land began to be cultivated with hoes), the population was engaged in breeding domestic animals. There is a "neolithic revolution" - the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one.

End of II - beginning of I millennium BC e. (the Bronze Age - the beginning of the Iron Age). It is characterized by significant areas of settlements, in comparison with previous eras, by the presence of stone residential and outbuildings. Bones of domestic animals, stone grain grinders, silicon inserts of sickles are indicators of the established cattle-breeding (production economy). At this time, one settlement of 6,200 people was supposed to keep a herd of cattle with a livestock of 120 heads or 730 sheep. For three settlements, their number increased, respectively, to 360 or 2,190 heads. To maintain such a quantity of cattle, 549 hectares of pasture are needed, for sheep - 2580 hectares. This is without taking into account the area of ​​land for grazing horses, hayfields, cultivated soil. The load on natural landscape complexes and soils has increased. Pronounced anthropogenic landscapes appear. But this load was not constant.

Stage four.

Significant impact on soils (1st millennium BC - 3rd century AD).

On the territory of Crimea, rather large settlements are formed, with a higher population density, compared with the previously described periods. The entire territory of Crimea is divided between various state-territorial entities. Farming systems appeared, significantly affecting the soil layer and flora of the peninsula. It should be noted traces of the ancient demarcation of agricultural land in the choir of Chersonesos, the so-called. klera, (fences of land allotments (up to 100 km 2), which are especially well traced on the surface of the Heraclea, Mayachny, Tarkhankutsky peninsulas.

Agricultural products are produced not only for domestic consumption by the farm, but also for trade exchange. The population is located along the river valleys in areas with fertile soils, inconvenient for agriculture slopes of mountains, gullies, yail plateau are used for cattle breeding.

The introduction of intensive forms of agriculture, the introduction of Mediterranean fruit, ornamental and industrial crops, and a vineyard is associated with the Greek colonization of the region.

The basis of the Bosporus was agriculture, the main crops of which were: cereals and legumes. Near the village of Semenovka, during the excavation of the settlement, plowshares were found that allowed plowing to a depth of 9 cm. Yields in the Bosporus kingdom averaged 10 hectoliters (about 50 poods) of grain per hectare (14.74 centners / ha).

Scythians - nomads stayed in one place for as long as there was enough grass for herds of horses and cows, and then moved to another section of the steppe. With this method of using steppe vegetation, it was not subjected to destructive livestock slaughter. Moderate grazing was even favorable for her, as it prevented the growth of weeds. The soil layer was slightly deformed. However, its physical properties changed due to compaction, dynamics of mechanical and granulometric composition.

With the emergence of the Late Scythian state, agriculture and viticulture remained the main occupation of the local population. Mainly cereals and legumes were grown. On large areas of cultivated land, the yield of wheat in Crimea could be six (about 5 centners / ha), and barley itself, five (about 4 centners / ha). Cattle breeding also played a significant role in the economy of the late Scythians. Mainly small ruminants were raised. In the first centuries, the number of cattle increased. The steppe fires had a negative effect on the humus state and physical properties of the soils, since the Scythians (especially in wartime) burned out the grass, using the “devastated land tactics”.

Fifth stage.

The recovery stage of the dynamics of the soil cover of Crimea

(3rd - 13th century AD)

After the collapse of the Scythian and Bosporus states, the decline of Chersonesos, a period of restoration of the soil cover was established on a large territory of Crimea. At the turn of the 4th - 5th centuries. AD, from the beginning of the process of the Great Nations Migration, the era of the Middle Ages begins.

Nomads who lived in the southern part of the Black Sea region, and later the Crimean Tatars, had the same attitude to nature, since their way of life largely had common features... Their impact on the landscapes of Crimea was reduced to moderate grazing and burning of grass vegetation. The ratio of the areas occupied by the steppe and forest remained almost unchanged from the time of Herodotus until the middle of the 18th century AD. At this time, grassy steppes prevailed over other lands.

Sixth stage

Active use of soils and landscapes.

In the 13th century. in the Crimea, the principalities of Feodoro and Kyrk-Orsk are isolated, the population of which was engaged in field cultivation, horticulture and viticulture, as well as mountain cattle breeding. In the mountainous areas, forest gardens were created - teapots. In the Crimean forests, you can still find fragments of the former mountain fruit growing. With the development of cattle breeding in the mountainous Crimea, the anthropogenic load on the landscapes of the foothill and mountain regions is increasing. Deforestation takes place and pastures are created in their place, and later the forests are cut down due to the use of wood in construction.

With the penetration of the Venetians and Genoese into Crimea, an active anthropogenic impact on the landscapes of the South Coast and the Southern slopes of the Main Ridge, where viticulture develops, continues.

Seventh stage.

Intensive transformation of soils in Crimea (18th - early 20th centuries)

The most decisive change in the history of the peoples of the Crimean steppe zone occurred in the period under review. The transition of the Black Sea and Azov steppe coasts to the possession of the Russian Empire entailed the rapid settlement of this territory by Ukrainians and Russians. The number of nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples has decreased. Due to changes in population size, the nature of the steppe zone of the Northern Black Sea coast of Crimea is also transforming. The area of ​​arable land has increased. In general, due to the remoteness of Crimea, the peculiarities of the political and economic situation, the rate of development of the Tauride province was lower than in the neighboring provinces: Kherson, Yekaterinoslav, Bessarabskaya. By the end of the 18th century. the plowing of the Kherson province was 10%, the Yekaterinoslav province - 32%, the Bessarabian province - 38%, and the Tauride province - only 18% of the agricultural land area. An extremely large increase in the absolute size of arable area in all provinces was observed in the period 1861 - 1887.

In the Tauride province from 1881 to 1888. the cultivated area increased by only 16.2%, and from 1888 to 1899 increased by 35%. The main increase in arable land fell on the Dnieper, Perekop, Evpatoria, Feodosia and Simferopol districts. Especially great changes took place in the steppe part, where, due to the new growth in demand for wheat, this crop occupied significant areas. In 1889-1900. its crops accounted for 43.1% of the total area under grain crops.

Population of Crimea from 1865 to 1890 doubled. The forests were quickly cleared. On the southern coast, secondary forests or thickets of the shiblyak type arose.

During the period from 1860 to 1917, the area of ​​land occupied by forest decreased by one third and amounted to 221 thousand hectares. At this time, there is a transition from the fallow to the fallow grain system of field cultivation. Significant changes took place in the soil cultivation system. According to the instructions of landowners or managers of farms and estates, the plowmen were to sweep the fallow field by an average of 3.5 inches (15.6 cm), there should have been 7–8 furrows per fathom (2.13 m). In connection with the intensive development of sheep breeding, virgin steppes turned into livestock slaughter.

Such a rapid transformation of natural landscapes led to the processes of soil destruction, the development of intense erosion processes. The replacement of natural vegetation by humans led to the formation of agrolandscapes during this period - a special independent category of geosystems that combines natural and anthropogenic properties.

Eighth stage.

Slight restoration of soil cover

1913-mid 20s

With the outbreak of the First World War, a short period of restoration of the natural landscapes of Crimea begins. By 1913, the sown area again decreases to 655 thousand dessiatines (715 thousand hectares). The number of sheep is declining. In 1919 Crimea was predominantly agricultural. Of the total area of ​​agricultural land in Crimea, 2360.4 thousand dessiatines (2577.6 thousand hectares), 1588.3 thousand dessiatines (1734.4 thousand hectares) or 63% were under agricultural crops and auxiliary lands. These lands were mainly occupied by arable land.

Ninth stage

Late 20s - late 90s.

Maximum impact on geosystems.

This period was characterized by intensive development of the national economy. Especially in the second half of the 20th century, anthropogenic loads led to a radical transformation of landscapes. Among them, we will single out the main reasons for the transformation of geosystems:

An increase in the area of ​​arable land, a decrease in the area of ​​pastures;

Increasing the area under vineyards, essential oil crops, orchards;

Secondary salinization, land flooding;

Increased use of herbicides, pesticides, mineral fertilizers

Construction of chemical plants;

Construction of reservoirs, transport highways, communication networks;

Establishment of resort infrastructure enterprises;

Increase in the density of settlements.

Currently, the Crimean Peninsula is one of the most intensively developed agricultural areas. It is characterized by grain farming and intensive farming branches - horticulture and viticulture. As a result of the extensive development of agricultural production and not taking into account the landscape features of the territory, a significant transformation of lands took place on the Crimean peninsula. In the steppe Crimea, natural landscapes have practically disappeared. The anthropogenic impact on landscapes, and especially on soils, increased with the commissioning of the North Crimean Canal. The expansion of the area of ​​irrigated land allowed the transition to a more progressive farming system. However, significant areas of irrigated land turned out to be flooded and partly saline, damaged by erosion (Tables 8 and 9).

Table 8 Areas of erosion-hazardous lands (in thousand hectares)

No., pp	Natural and agricultural region of Crimea	Total land area	Deflationary dangerous	Susceptible to the combined effects of water and wind erosion	Prone to water erosion
Black Sea	417,3	375,9	54,5	67,7
Krasnogvardeisky	322,9	266,1	10,2	15,5
Saki	193,2	162,7	26,7	24,6
Kerch	244,3	183,1	4,7	28,3
Dzhankoy	427,0	317,0	4,6	4,7
Simferopol	283,8	149,0	8,5	86,6
7.	Yuzhnoberezhny	41,3	-	-	17,0
8.	Mountain	48,2	-	-	25,4

Table 9 Areas of Crimean agricultural landscapes subject to erosion

	Types of agricultural land	Wind erosion		Water erosion		Jointly affected
		total thousand hectares.	in% to the type of land	total thousand hectares.	in% to the type of land	total thousand hectares.	in% to the type of land
1	Arable land	823,2	66,0	96,0	7,6	31,8	2,5
2	Perennial plantings	46,8	37,4	10,8	8,6	0,3	0,2
3	Deposits	-	-	-	-	-	-
4	Hayfields	-	-	-	-	-	-
5	Pasture	247,2	62,2	92,5	23,3	15,8	4,0
6	Total agricultural land	1117,2	63,1	199,3	11,3	47,9	2,7

As can be seen from the tables, the Kerch Peninsula is rather strongly subject to anthropogenic transformation. Areas where low natural soil fertility excludes their agricultural use are distinguished by the lowest transformation. Areas where saline soils and thin soils with rock outcrops predominate are characterized by weak transformation, which determined their use in the case of unproductive pastures. The areas where irrigated agriculture is developed stand out with the greatest transformation.

Chapter 3. Monitoring the state of soil cover and landscape of the territory

anthropogenic transformation soil landscape

Work on the protection of soils and landscapes presupposes the availability of information about their condition, about their changes under the influence of anthropogenic loads.

The ecological role of soil as a node of biosphere connections, where all metabolic processes between the earth's crust, hydrosphere, atmosphere and organisms living on land are most intensively, determines the need for a special organization of soil monitoring as an integral part of overall environmental monitoring.

Soil and landscape monitoring is Information system observation, assessment and forecast of changes in soil and landscapes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors. Every year the need to organize a soil and landscape monitoring service becomes more and more acute, since the size of anthropogenic loads on them is constantly increasing.

The most important tasks of soil monitoring at present are the following:

Estimation of average annual losses of soil resources due to water, irrigation erosion and deflation;

Detection of regions with a deficit balance of the main elements of plant nutrition, identification and assessment of the rate of loss of humus, nitrogen, phosphorus; control of the content of plant nutrients;

Control of acid-base parameters of soils, which is especially important in areas of irrigation, the use of high doses of mineral fertilizers and industrial waste as ameliorants, as well as in large industrial centers and in the adjacent territories, where precipitation is characterized by high acidity;

Observation of the salt regime of irrigated soils;

Control of soil pollution by heavy metals due to global fallout and fertilization;

Control of local soil pollution with heavy metals in the zone of influence of industrial enterprises and transport highways, as well as pesticides in regions of their constant use, detergents and household waste in areas with a high population density;

Long-term and seasonal (during the growing season of plants) control of humidity, temperature, structural state, water-physical properties of soils;

Assessment of the likely change in soil properties during the design of hydraulic construction, land reclamation, the introduction of new systems of agriculture and fertilizers, etc.;

Inspection control of the size and correctness of the alienation of arable soils for industrial and municipal purposes.

This is probably not a complete list of tasks facing soil monitoring. In addition to the above, in the future, new, additional, tasks may appear that will be associated with new technological processes and the expansion of the range of synthesized chemical industry organic and mineral substances. At the same time, part of today's tasks will be removed, for example, when industrial enterprises switch to waste-free technology, and the need to control chemical pollution of soils in the adjacent territories will disappear.

Monitoring begins with the study of existing materials on the conditions and factors of soil formation, existing soil maps, field history books, information on farming systems, fertilization, etc.

It should be noted that successful monitoring of the state of soils and soil cover cannot do without using a comparison standard. V in this case this concept embeds the designation of a certain conditional reference point in the characteristic of a typical soil of a particular region. This term is also used in a number of other interpretations - a standard as a "benchmark soil", or reference soil, a "standard of fertility". For monitoring purposes, it is important to have the characteristics of the initial (start of observations) soil state.

Monitoring objects are selected based on the results of the analysis of the collected materials. They should reflect typical natural ecosystems and agroecosystems and serve as standards where anthropogenic influence is practically absent or minimized, as well as areas within which there is a very high anthropogenic pressure. To select the objects of observation, it is necessary to use not only medium-scale and large-scale soil maps, but also various cartograms (erosion, salinity, pollution, etc.), according to which the degree of soil degradation is established.

An important link in soil monitoring is the selection of their properties, which should be monitored over time in order to identify changes, both natural and anthropogenic. Indicators of changes can be signs of the beginning of the development of negative processes, persistent degradation and irreversible degradation.

If there is a significant amount of information collected before the start of observations (retrospective monitoring) and in the process of monitoring at the selected objects, a database is created for their further systematization, processing and storage. The monitoring results are used by a special service for operational warning of negative soil processes.

Only with a developed infrastructure for soil monitoring, similar to those that function in the advanced countries of the world, it is possible to reduce to a minimum the adjustment of soil surveys and limit ourselves to interpolating the results of monitoring studies over large areas. At the same time, it is necessary to adhere to the rule according to which the transfer of the results of research carried out within the framework of monitoring can be transferred only to genetically related soils.

Soil cover monitoring has its own specifics, providing control of the component composition - a set of elementary soil areas, their geometry, percentage ratio, contrast level and complexity. It can be done when correcting large-scale maps compiled during the period of previous surveys, as well as in the framework of national monitoring. land resources remote and ground methods. Monitoring of the soil cover is especially relevant in areas of intensive reclamation (drainage, irrigation) and in areas of crisis situations. It can be performed on special analog keys.

Conclusion

On the territory of the Kerch Peninsula, the transformation of soils and landscapes occurs under the influence of various factors and mechanisms. Natural conditions form a certain background, which serves as the basis for the deployment of chains of consequences caused by anthropogenic factors. The latter cause an imbalance in the established balance. Due to the strong transformation of ecosystems and the almost complete absence of natural phytocenoses, regulatory mechanisms work poorly. In addition, the imbalance spreads to other ecosystems, which further reduces the level of stabilization.

As a result of the work performed, I received the following conclusions: the transformation of agricultural lands of the Kerch Peninsula includes at least two components: 1) the transformation of natural landscapes into natural-anthropogenic landscapes (agricultural landscapes different types), 2) transformation of soils: changes in chemism, moisture, mechanical composition, density, manifestation of new types of processes (for example, irrigation erosion, soldering, merging, dehumification, etc. In the first case, we are talking about replacing natural components - vegetation, soils, climate (at the level of the local climate), relief (at the level of microrelief and, sometimes, mesorelief) - artificial - vegetation of gardens, vineyards, grain and row crops, perennial grasses, artificial soils, artificial terraces, reservoirs, buildings, etc. genus cannot be unambiguously determined within the framework of the assessment, good or bad, since anthropogenic systems are necessary for human existence. We can only talk about the need to search for reasonable territorial proportions between natural and anthropogenic systems. In the second case, we are talking about the transformation of landscape components without changing the very essence components, such as changes in soil characteristics ... In most cases, these changes turn out to be unfavorable.

Often there is a complex interweaving of natural and anthropogenic processes, the emergence of so-called chain reactions. Chain reactions also involve areas located next to those on which the influences occur. Often, the consequences of an act affect areas far from the scene of the act.

Literature

1. Atlas of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea / [Ed. N.V. Bagrova]. - Simferopol: 2003 .-- 80 p.

2. Dragan N.A. Soil resources of Crimea / Dragan N.A. - Simferopol: Share, 2004 .-- 207 p. - (Tutorial).

3. Dragan N.A. Soil protection / Dragan N.A. - Simferopol: Share, 2004 .-- 160 p. - (Tutorial).

4. Dragan N.A. Influence of irrigation on the soil cover of the plain Crimea. Sat. Issues of the development of Crimea / issue 4 - Simferopol. Tavria, 1997 - p. 61-66.

5. Ergina E.I. Periodization of anthropogenic transformation of Crimean landscapes / Ergina E.I. // Culture of the peoples of the Black Sea region - 2005 - №52, 5-8s.

6. Use of water resources in the ARC. Scientific works of KIPKS / Sustainable Crimea. Action plan. Kiev - Simferopol, 1999 s. 181-201.

7. Lvova E.V. Plain Crimea / Lvova E.V. - K., 1978 .-- 188 p.

8. Keys to higher plants of the Crimea / [Ed. NI Rubtsova]. - L., 1972 .-- 550 p.

9. Podgorodetskiy P. D. Crimea. Nature / Podgorodetsky P.D. - Simferopol: Tavria, 1988 .-- 192 p.

10. Rubtsov N.I. The flora of the Crimea / Rubtsov N.I. - Simferopol: Tavria, 1978 .-- 128 p.

11. Kerch Peninsula [Electronic resource] / Free encyclopedia Wikipedia. - 2009 - Access mode: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerch Peninsula.htm

12. Kerch Kholmogorye [Electronic resource] / 2008. - Access mode: http://www.onixtour.com.ua/books/91c2e61/part04.htm

13. Climate [Electronic resource] / 2008. - Access mode: http://bospor.org/climate.htm

The Parpach ridge is composed of Middle Miocene sediments and stretches first in a latitudinal direction, starting at Vladislavovka, then at Marfovka it turns to the south and, forming two smooth arcuate bends (Parabolic ridge), approaches the Black Sea coast near Lake Koyash and Mount Opuk. The region south and west of the Parpach Ridge, known as the Southwestern Plain of the Peninsula, is predominantly composed of the Maikop Series. This area represents the northern part of the periclinal closure of the great anticlinal uplift of Mountain Crimea, and the Miocene rocks of the Parpach Ridge clearly outline its northern wing and eastern subsidence.

Thus, the Parpach Ridge makes it possible to distinguish three parts on the Kerch Peninsula, tectonically related to different structural elements (Fig. 61).

The area of ​​the southwestern part of the peninsula, outlined by the Parpach ridge, is a direct continuation and subsidence of the core of the Crimean meganticlinorium. The northern part of the Kerch Peninsula to the north of the Parpach Ridge belongs to the northern wing of the anticlinal structure of the Crimean Mountains and, at the same time, to the southern wing of the Indola Trough bordering it. The folds numerous in this part of the peninsula, forming several rows, thus represent complications in the structure of this wing. The southeastern part of the Kerch Peninsula, together with the folds complicating its structure to the east of the bend of the Parpach Ridge, belongs to the region of the periclinal trough separating the meganticlinorium of the Crimean Mountains from the meganticlinorium of the Greater Caucasus. This trough, in addition to the southeastern part of the Kerch Peninsula, also includes the southern half of the Taman Peninsula.

The southwestern part of the Kerch Peninsula is composed of a powerful Maikop series of clayey rocks, which form several large folds. In the structure of the northern part of the peninsula and its southeastern section, along with the Maikop series, there are Middle and Upper Miocene and Pliocene deposits. Maikop rocks protrude to the surface only in the cores of the anticlines, the wings of the latter are composed of Miocene rocks, and the synclines are made of the Pliocene.

The study of the tectonics of the Kerch Peninsula was initiated by N.I. Andrusov. Later, its tectonics were refined by the works of A.D. Arkhangelsky, A.A. Blokhin, G.A.Lychagin, V.V.Menner, 3.I. Maimin, M.I. Chepikova and others!

The structure of the southwestern part of the Kerch Peninsula

The powerful Maikop Series, which composes the southwestern part of the Kerch Peninsula, forms a system of narrow, highly compressed anticlines, separated by flatter and wider synclines. In total, four anticlinal zones are outlined here, separated by three synclinal zones. Anticlinal zones consist of two or three anticlines, echelon substituting one another. The folds are steep, with vertical layers in the axial parts and rapidly flattening wings. The synclines separating them are characterized by gentle and calm bedding.

The southern anticlinal zone - Dyurmenskaya - consists of three folds. The southernmost anticline, stretched in an east-northeast direction, Karangatskaya is located near the coast of the sea at Cape Karaigat (see Fig. 61). Upper Cretaceous and Eocene sediments protrude in its overturned core to the south. The next adjacent Durmen anticline is also overturned to the south. Its core is composed of Eocene sediments and Durmenian layers of the lower part of the Maikop Group. Its continuation in the northeast is the Prostornenskaya anticline. The second, the Borukh-Obinsk zone, consists of three folds stretched to the east-northeast and replacing one another. The third zone includes the Moshkarevskaya, Vulkanovskaya and Marfovskaya anticlines. The Moshkarevskaya fold has a steeper northern wing and a gentle southern one. A small commercial oil field is associated with it. The largest mud hill in the Crimea - Dzhau-Tepe - is confined to the Vulkanovskaya anticline.

The wide syncline of the Sandy Balka separates the listed folds from the fourth - the most northern anticlinal zone - Vladislavovskaya, which includes several compressed but short folds. These folds have a latitudinal strike along the Parpach ridge and are slightly inclined to the north.

All systems of anticlinal folds formed by the Maikop Series, together with the synclines separating them, structurally form a large anticlinorium of the Southwestern Plain, dipping to the east-northeast.

The structure of the northern part of the Kerch Peninsula

The folds of the northern part of the Kerch Peninsula form a system of latitudinal strike, in which there are four anticlinal zones. The anticlines in them are short, sink rapidly, echelon replacing one another along the strike; therefore, within these zones, there are several folds (see Fig. 61).

Anticlinal zones consist of brachyanticlines, most of which have a core formed by the Oligocene (Maikop series); in some of them, Oligocene core deposits are hidden under younger rocks. In the latter case, the anticlines have a relatively simple structure and are elongated, not very long folds with rather steep wings. In those cases, when the cores of folds formed by clays of the Oligocene are exposed on the surface, more or less significant complications are observed in their structure. Oligonous clays of the core are steep and bear crushing and crushing plots. The layers that make up the wings (Miocene) lie on them sharply unconformably, steeply, and with distance from the core, the folds flatten out. Moreover, short, sharp swellings in the axial parts of these folds are asymmetric, sometimes accompanied by overturning of the wings.

The westernmost fold in the described system is the Kamensk brachyanticline. It has a core folded by the Maikop series. En-echelon in relation to it, a little to the east and south, there is a small but steep Nasyr anticline. On its continuation to the east, along the Parpach ridge, the longer Korolevskaya (Semikolodeznaya) and then the large Novoshepeteyevskaya brachyanticline are stretched, both of which have strongly exposed and complexly constructed Maikop cores. The listed folds form the first row, which is closest to the Parpach ridge.

Obliquely in relation to this row from the Kamenskaya brachyanticline, along the coast Sea of ​​Azov, in the northeastern direction there are three more separate brachyanticlines - Krasnokutskaya, Belokamenskaya and Mysovskaya. The latter forms Cape Kazantip. All these folds are very short and rounded. In their cores, Sarmatian rocks are exposed, and along the periphery they are bordered by a ring of bryozoan reefs of the Meotis. This makes the folds very distinct morphologically, regular brachyanticlines.

The second row of folds begins with the Slyusarevskaya anticline, the longest on the Kerch Peninsula. The Slyusarevskaya anticline is separated from the Korolevskaya and Novoshepeteevskaya brachyanticlines by the narrow Lenin syncline filled with Lower and Middle Sarmatian deposits. The core of the Slyusarevskaya anticline is formed by crushed Maikop clays, the wings - by Middle Miocene and Sarmatian deposits. The largest on the Kerch Peninsula (up to 4 km in diameter), round, the so-called "depressed" syncline, which complicates the general structure of the anticline and is called the Burulkay boiler, is confined to the arch part of the anticline. On the gentle eastern plunge of the Slyusarevskaya anticline, the Alekseevskaya anticline is located, which bifurcates in the east. Mineral springs are located at the site of the bifurcation.

The third row is formed by several elongated folds - the Novonikolaevskaya, Chistopolskaya, Andreevskaya, Voskhodovskaya, and Soldatskaya anticlines, formed by steeply dipping rocks of the Maikop Group and more gently lying Middle Miocene sediments.

To the north of it is one of the largest structural elements of the Kerch Peninsula - the Kerch-Salynsk syncline, filled with sediments of the Upper Miocene and Pliocene. In the west, this syncline extends to the bordering Krasnokutsk and Belokamensk anticlines and here it closes in the area of ​​Lake Aktash. The eastern extended part of the syncline was named the Kerch trough.

The section between the Kerch-Salynsk syncline and the Sea of ​​Azov occupies the fourth, most complexly constructed series of anticlines, named by N.I. Andrusov as the Chegene-Yenikale zone. In the western part of this zone, there is a large Karalar anticline, the core of which is composed of clays of the Maikop Group, and the wings of Middle Miocene and Sarmatian deposits. On the eastern plunge of the Karalar anticline, there is an oval Kezen trough filled with the Pliocene. It separates the northern coastal branch of the Chegen-Yenikale anticlinal zone from the southern branch. The westernmost of the anticlines forming the southern branch (Karaminskaya) is located immediately south of the Karalar anticline, and the other two - Burash and Babchik - south of the Kezen trough. The Chokrak, Tarkhan, Bulganak and Yurakon-Kut anticlines take part in the structure of the northern branch. The anticlines of the southern branch, like the entire Chegene-Yenikale zone, are characterized by intense manifestations of mud volcanism and widespread development of depressed synclinal structures. In the east, the Chegen-Yenikale anticlinal zone ends with a system of several small brachyanticlinal folds (Glazovskaya and Borzovskaya anticlines, etc.).

The structure of the southeastern part of the Kerch Peninsula

The southeastern part of the Kerch Peninsula includes a zone of folds located in the very southeast of it, and a rather extensive area of ​​gentle structures. The latter is located between the southeastern system of folds and the southern edge of the latitudinal row of anticlines - Chistopolskaya - Soldatskaya, belonging to the northern system of the peninsula. This area is characterized by a very calm bedding of layers, disturbed by dome-shaped anticlines and very flat troughs - synclines. It is located on the straight strike of the axial zone of the anticlinorium of the Southwest Plain. Probably, it should be considered as a continuation of this anticlinorium dipping to the east.

The main structural elements of this site are the Arshintsevskaya (or Kamyshburunskaya) and Heroevskaya (or Elgigenovskaya) flat synclines, well known as the main iron ore troughs of the Kerch Peninsula, which are filled with the entire stratum of rocks of the Meotis, Pontic and Cimmerian stages. The axes of these troughs converge at an angle, since in the first of them the axis extends latitudinally and follows the folds of the northern system, and in the second it extends from the southwest to the northeast and follows the folds of the southeastern system of the Kerch Peninsula.

Within the very gentle uplift separating the mentioned troughs, there are three closely spaced dome-shaped folds: Repyevskaya, Sokol'skaya and Alagolskaya, the vaults of which are formed by the Middle Miocene deposits and the Maikop series.

This combination of dome-shaped folds and troughs reflects the articulation of two systems of Neogene folds of the Kerch Peninsula, bordering the sinking core of an older age.

The southeastern system of folds of the Kerch Peninsula includes two rows of northeastern anticlines. One of them begins in the southwest near Mount Opuk and is represented by the long Chorelek (Pogranichnaya) anticline with a core composed of Middle Miocene sediments and manifestations of mud volcanism, and then replacing it en-echelon by the Priozernaya (Chongelek) anticline. This fold is inclined to the southeast and is complicated by a depressed syncline. In the northeastern direction, the Lakeside anticline is hidden under the waters of Lake Tobechik. Its northeastern continuation was named the Zaozernaya (Tobechik) anticline, most of which was destroyed by the sea. To the southeast of the described zone there is a wide Zavetnenskaya trough filled with a ponte and a Cimmerian tier with iron ores; its northeastern closure is located within the Kerch Strait.

The second anticlinal zone stretches to the southeast of the Zavetnenskaya trough. It is formed by two en-echelon anticlines - Yakovenkovskaya and Korenkovskaya, slightly overturned to the southeast. They have a complex structure. The Yakovenkovskaya anticline along the southern wing is broken by a large thrust fault.

We keep talking about National economy different regions of Crimea. We will devote this program to the economy of the Kerch Peninsula. It is known as an important tourist destination. Here - to choose from - the Black Sea or the Sea of ​​Azov, the famous curative mud, but today we will focus on something else: on industry, transport and agriculture.

Let's start with the city of Kerch. The main sectors of the economy are shipbuilding, ship repair, fishing and fish processing. Transport also plays a key role. The Kerch Sea Trade Port is located here. Not to be confused with the ferry crossing. The export of Crimean grain to other countries and supplies of gasoline, crushed stone, sand and mineral fertilizers to the peninsula passes through it. The railroad approaches the mouth. This allows goods to be loaded from the ship to the wagons and vice versa.




The geographical position of Kerch is very advantageous. Trade between Crimea and the mainland goes through it. The ferry crossing - Port of Crimea - Port of Caucasus is operating at full capacity.






The transit position of the city provides a payload for all types of cargo and passenger transportation, as well as for related industries - repair and maintenance of vehicles. Kerch seaports and Kerch ATP - Motor Transport Enterprise - significant taxpayers of the Crimean budget.

Let's move on to the industry of the city of Kerch. Her business card is shipbuilding. The main representatives of the industry are the Zaliv plant, the Fregat shipyard and the Tral company. Kerch shipbuilders build passenger ships, tugs, ferries and even tankers. They are also engaged in ship repair. For example, the Gulf can release new ships and repair existing ones. In its dock, ships of the Volgo-Don type, ferries and even a self-propelled floating platform were serviced.




The next area of ​​the Kerch economy is fishing and fish processing. Anchovy, goby, sprat, sprat, horse mackerel are caught in the waters of the Black and Azov Seas. Among the numerous enterprises in the industry, the Kerch fish factory and the Proliv plant stand out.




Within the framework of the Free Economic Zone, new enterprises of this direction regularly appear, including those with a full cycle: from catching fish to selling finished products.

A very important project is being launched by the Black Sea Fishing Company. She is building a fish reception center. Now a lot of fish are being caught, and the infrastructure cannot cope. There are not enough places for unloading fishing vessels, freezing and storing fish. So the plan is very timely.

The city has its own electricity producer - Kamysh Burunskaya CHPP. It has always been viewed as a backup source. But during a power shortage, it became the main one from the reserve one. The capacity of the CHP was not enough for the entire city, but within the limits of their capabilities, the employees of the power plant worked at their limit. Starting with the blackout, and also after it, the capacity of Kamysh Burunskaya CHPP gradually increased and from the initial 6 megawatts was increased to 32.


Since ancient times, since the days of Panticapaeum, iron ore has been mined and metal products have been produced on the Kerch Peninsula. In the middle of the 19th century, a cast iron factory was built here, but it was destroyed by the British during the Crimean War. The revival of metallurgical production took place half a century later in 1900. At present, the once united industrial giant is divided into two enterprises - a metallurgical complex and a switch plant.


The metallurgical complex produces steel enameled dishes, and the switch plant produces railway switches and castings - steel and cast iron - for example, wheels for tower cranes, sewer manholes and storm grates.






I will also name a cement plant. It is being built by Gen Invest. This is a major project within the Free Economic Zone. Implemented on the basis of an agreement with the Government of Crimea. The amount of investment is very large - almost a billion rubles. The production capacity is 30 thousand tons of cement per month. The implementation of the project will provide the region with 450 jobs.


Another interesting enterprise is called Algeal. Last year it figured in government reports as an increase in output. It manufactures plastic utensil handles, wine corks, plastic bags.






I will name in a short line a few more enterprises of the city of Kerch. These are two bakeries, the Sarmat plant for the production of bricks (by the way, it is already 80 years old). Enterprise Yug Inter Pak. For 60 years it has been producing metal plugs, the so-called crown caps.




Today we are not talking about the sanatorium-resort complex, but for reference I will add that there are 15 operating health resorts in Kerch. These are hotels, sanatoriums and recreation centers. The geographical proximity to the mainland makes the city a convenient vacation spot for residents of Russia.

3-

We continue to talk about the economy of the Kerch Peninsula. Next, we will discuss the Leninsky District. In terms of area, it is the largest in Crimea. Occupies most of the Kerch Peninsula. It has access to two seas - the Black and the Azov. The basis of the economy is the agro-industrial complex. It employs a third of the population. The leading enterprises are Vostok and Zolotoy Kolos. Both are engaged in field cultivation. Wheat, barley and peas are grown.




In total, there are 84 agricultural enterprises in the Leninsky District. Of these, 40 are legal entities and 44 are farms. The main crop in the fields is winter wheat. In second place is winter barley, in third place is spring barley. Let me remind you that winter crops are planted in autumn and left to winter, while spring crops are planted in spring. Also, in the Leninsky district, a lot of peas are grown, and flax, sunflower and coriander prevail among oil plants.




Within the Free Economic Zone, there are two large fruit growing projects. Each of them has a capital investment of 90 million rubles.

There is also dairy farming, pig and sheep breeding.




There is an interesting feature in the Leninsky District. However, it is typical for the whole Crimea. The main livestock population is concentrated not in livestock enterprises, but in personal subsidiary plots. This is one of the reasons for the high prices for meat. Large agricultural enterprises have more opportunities to lower prices for their products. They have less expenses for a separately taken animal. And the individual owner has higher costs for each individual, so he sells at a high price, otherwise it is not profitable for him.

Leninsky district lives not only in agriculture. Gas is being produced on the shelf of the Azov Sea. These are the Vostochno-Kazantipskoye and Severo-Bulganakskoye fields. The work is carried out by Chernomorneftegaz. For more than 30 years onshore oil has been produced from the Semyonovskoye field. But the volumes are not great there. This oil is used to make fuel oil, and some is consumed by Chernomorneftegaz itself for technical needs. The Subbotin oil field is in preparation for the start of production. It is located in the Black Sea south of the Kerch Peninsula.




Other industrial facilities are the aerated concrete plant, the Arctic cannery and the Alef-Vinal Crimea brandy plant. By the way, at the end of 2015, Alef Vinal received gratitude from Sergei Aksyonov. The head of Crimea noted the high receipts of tax payments from this enterprise.

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