The gap between rich and poor in the world has narrowed. Deep stratification of Russian society

People have always dreamed of justice. Indignation at inequality was one of the most important driving forces in the history of the 20th century - without it, neither the Russian revolutions, nor the collapse of colonial empires, nor the growth of the middle class in developed countries would have happened. But has the world become fairer over the past century? And can we avoid deepening inequality in the 21st century?

There is no consensus in the scientific community on these issues, but a recent study by the World Bank clearly shows that global inequality is declining.

Rich man, poor man...

Supporters of the left (in the sense of socialist) ideas are usually sure that the gap between the rich and the poor is deepening, acquiring simply catastrophic proportions. "We live in a society where inequality is striking, and in many cases becomes more and more screaming," the famous Italian historian Carlo Ginzburg, who visited Moscow, assured me.

There was nothing to cover - it is obvious that in Russia, in comparison with the USSR, the property stratification increased many times over. It is enough to compare Brezhnev's car park with Abramovich's yacht park or the apartments of Soviet functionaries with the palaces of current officials and top managers. In 2012, the incomes of the richest 10% and the poorest 10% of Russians differed by 17 times, and in Soviet times by 4 times.

Post-Soviet Russia is a special case, but Western leftists have been talking about increasing inequality since the time of Karl Marx, who predicted that capital would accumulate at one end of society and poverty at the other. It is easy for a rich man and his heirs to become even richer: capital brings much more profit than any labor, and a poor family cannot make initial capital - labor costs too little. Therefore, the gap between the rich and the poor will only widen.

Anomalous 20th century

All the statistics of the century before last confirmed this logic. But the 20th century spoiled it: revolutions and world wars reversed the trend towards increasing inequality. Giant fortunes were lost, colonialism collapsed, the trade union movement and the redistribution of taxes in favor of the working class intensified in the countries of the West, and most importantly, the world entered a phase of rapid economic growth in the face of a shortage of workers and a technological breakthrough. As a result, in developed countries, the poorest segments of the population have emerged from poverty.

1.1 billion people on the planet have been lifted out of extreme poverty since 1990. "Extreme poverty" is defined as incomes of less than $1.9 a day per person

But, according to one of the most famous modern followers of Marx, economist Tom Piketty, this was only a "temporal anomaly": since the 1970s, capitalism has returned to its "normal" development, when the average wealth of the richest is growing much faster than the world economy generally.

The increase in economic inequality in recent decades has not been very noticeable, because the average standard of living has also risen. But statistics confirm many of Piketty's findings. For example, the middle class in the United States is indeed blurring - a recent study by the Pew Research Center sociological center recorded that for the first time in the post-war period in the United States, citizens with average incomes made up less than half of the population - 49.7%, although back in 1971 they were 61%.

We are 99%!

Now the 62 richest people on the planet have the same assets as the entire poorest half of the population. And if you take the 1% of the richest people, their wealth is approximately equal to the total wealth of the remaining 99%. "We are 99%!" - Do you remember the most popular slogan "occupying", the main Western protest movement of recent years? This is exactly what he is talking about, and the main reason for the protest is indignation at inequality.

In his bestselling book Capital in the 21st Century, Piketty argues that the Western world is returning to "ancestral capitalism" - a society with a closed class structure, in which a lot of capital can be obtained only through inheritance or marriage. It is an oligarchic society in which a few families control most of the wealth. Is this really our future?

How life has changed

Before judging the future, let's take another look at how inequality has changed over the course of the 20th century. Let's just look not at the amount of money, but at what you can buy with this money, because equality is, first of all, equality of opportunity.

Have we become, for example, "more equal" to eat? At the beginning of the last century, these same 99% of the population could afford meat only on holidays, and often they were simply starving. Today we eat better than the kings of past eras: we buy fruits from warm countries or seafood, located thousands of kilometers away from us. The rich prefer expensive farm shops and "organic" food - the same by and large. Even in Soviet society, the gap between the nomenklatura, which lived on shortages, and the people who dreamed of sausage was much larger.

767 million people are still in extreme poverty. More than half of them live in Africa south of the Sahara, another third - in South Asia.

Has inequality in access to education increased? At the beginning of the last century, higher education was a huge value that only a few could afford. Now this is the norm, not to mention secondary education and universal literacy. Moreover, right now a real revolution is taking place in this area: online education allows billions of people to listen to lectures at the best universities in the world - there would be a desire.

What about access to healthcare? This is where the inequality clearly should have increased: modern medicine is an expensive service. But no, statistics show the opposite: the difference in infant mortality or in total life expectancy is only decreasing all the time.

Perhaps the inequality of people before the law has increased? Nothing of the kind: women have received voting rights, gays have ceased to be imprisoned, racial and national segregation is being successfully fought, even the rights of children are being protected.

The same thing happens in other areas as well. Piketty prophesies "generic capitalism", but meanwhile it has never been so easy to get rich as it is now - simply by organizing a startup that people need, without any initial capital. There have never been such reliable social elevators, allowing a capable person of any background to become a manager or official. The ability to travel and choose a place of residence has also always been a privilege of the elite, meanwhile, two-thirds of the inhabitants of today's Moscow were not born in it.

End of poverty

It turns out that, according to statistics, wealth is concentrated in the hands of the elite and inequality is growing, but in reality everything is different?

No, the statistics will also change if we take into account not only Western countries, but the whole world, most of which lives much more modestly than you and me, but much better than their parents. Recently, the World Bank published a report on the results of a study of global wealth inequality. The conclusion is quite clear: inequality has been declining for many decades.

80% of the extremely poor live in rural areas

Yes, the incomes of the wealthy are growing faster than the economy as a whole. But the incomes of the poorest part of the population are growing even faster. Inequality is reduced primarily due to unprecedented progress in the fight against poverty, from which more than a billion people have escaped over the past quarter century.

For example, in India in 2009-2010 alone, the number of poor people who survive on less than $1.9 a day fell by one and a half times. In China, yesterday's semi-impoverished rural population is massively moving into the category of well-to-do city dwellers, the middle class. And only in these two states more people live than in the entire Western world. However, according to the World Bank, inequality continues to decline in most developed countries.

What's next?

So inequality is decreasing. In the long run, this is easy to see, but in the short run, the opposite trend may prevail - as in the United States and Russia.

Inequality, however, is not always evil, it is an important driving force of social development. The idea of ​​equality lies at the heart of all social utopias, but when they were tried to be realized, every time it turned out that complete equality is worse than any inequality. Pitirim Sorokin, a prominent sociologist of Russian origin, argued that the level of economic inequality fluctuates around the optimal value, too much deviation from which in any direction is fraught with catastrophes.

Apparently, the peak of inequality falls on the agrarian stage of the development of society, on one pole of which there is an all-powerful monarch and a brilliant aristocracy, and on the other - disenfranchised slaves and serfs.

Does progress threaten equality? Perhaps. And it is connected, according to many experts, with the growing technological gap between countries. Some states create new technologies and grow rich. Others do menial work for them, the demand for which will fall as production is automated. And still others cannot take advantage of the fruits of progress at all. A similar gap may also arise within the country - between the future-oriented center and the periphery, living out its days in the cozy world of traditions.

And yet, in the information society, judging by current trends, inequality will decrease. According to well-known economist Jeremy Rifkin and other ideologues of the sharing economy (from the English share - to share), the development of the Internet and smart automated services will launch the transition from an economy based on the extraction of surplus value to an economy of cooperation and the exchange of benefits.

This is the basis of the new sociality, which is replacing the atomization of society: people will take more care of each other and together equip the life of their community. And an economy based on social principles will be aimed not so much at increasing profits as at improving the quality of our lives.

Social inequality appeared in primitive tribes and intensified at subsequent stages of the development of society.

In modern society, large social groups are distinguished, differing in income (wealth), level of education, profession and nature of work. They are called classes, social strata.

In society, there is a social division into groups of the rich (upper class), prosperous (middle class), poor (lower class).

The rich, the upper class include those who own large property, money. They are on the top rung of the social "ladder", receive large incomes, have large property (oil companies, commercial banks, etc.). A person can become rich thanks to talent and hard work, inheritance, and a successful career.

Between the rich and the poor is the middle class of wealthy people, provided with money. They maintain a decent standard of living that allows them to satisfy all reasonable needs (purchase high-quality food, expensive clothes, housing).

The poor - the lower class - receive the minimum income in the form of wages, pensions, stipends, social benefits. This money can be used to purchase only the smallest amount of necessities of life necessary to maintain the health and life of a person (food, clothing, etc.).

Imagine that all people are socially equal. Universal equality deprives people of incentives to move forward, the desire to apply their maximum efforts and abilities to fulfill their duties (people will consider that they receive no more for their work than they would receive if they did nothing all day).

Inequality between people exists in any society. This is quite natural and logical, given that people differ in their abilities, interests, life preferences, value orientations, etc.

In every society, there are poor and rich, educated and uneducated, enterprising and unenterprising, those in power and those without it.

In this regard, the problem of the origin of social inequality, attitudes towards it and ways to eliminate it has always aroused increased interest, not only among thinkers and politicians, but also among ordinary people who consider social inequality as an injustice.

In the history of social thought, the inequality of people was explained in different ways: by the primordial inequality of souls, by divine providence, by the imperfection of human nature, by functional necessity by analogy with the organism.

The German economist K. Marx associated social inequality with the emergence of private property and the struggle of interests of various classes and social groups.

The German sociologist R. Dahrendorf also believed that the economic and status inequality underlying the ongoing conflict of groups and classes and the struggle for the redistribution of power and status is formed as a result of the market mechanism for regulating supply and demand.

The Russian-American sociologist P. Sorokin explained the inevitability of social inequality by the following factors: internal biopsychic differences of people; the environment (natural and social), which objectively puts individuals in an unequal position; the joint collective life of individuals, which requires the organization of relations and behavior, which leads to the stratification of society into the ruled and the managers.

The American sociologist T. Pearson explained the existence of social inequality in every society by the presence of a hierarchized system of values. For example, in American society, success in business and career is considered the main social value, therefore, scientists of technological specialties, plant directors, etc., have a higher status and income, while in Europe the dominant value is “preservation of cultural patterns”, in connection with what society gives special prestige to humanities intellectuals, clergymen, university professors.

Social inequality, being inevitable and necessary, manifests itself in all societies at all stages of historical development; only the forms and degree of social inequality change historically. Otherwise, individuals would lose the incentive to engage in complex and laborious, dangerous or uninteresting activities, to improve their skills. With the help of inequality in income and prestige, society encourages individuals to engage in necessary, but difficult and unpleasant professions, encourages more educated and talented people, and so on.

The problem of social inequality is one of the most acute and topical in modern Russia. A feature of the social structure of Russian society is a strong social polarization - the division of the population into poor and rich in the absence of a significant middle stratum, which is the basis of an economically stable and developed state. Strong social stratification, characteristic of modern Russian society, reproduces a system of inequality and injustice, in which the opportunities for independent self-realization in life and raising social status are limited for a fairly large part of the Russian population.

The traditional Oxfam report, timed to coincide with the start of the international economic forum in Davos, Switzerland, indicates that the wealth of the world's richest people has grown over the year, and now only 1% of the world's population owns more than half of all wealth. The wealth of the world's 3.7 billion people - the poorest half of the world's population - has remained unchanged.

Over the last available year (mid-2017 to mid-2016), total global wealth grew by $9.3 trillion, and 82% of this increase ($7.6 trillion) went to the richest 1% of the world's population, according to Oxfam's calculations based on data annual report of Credit Suisse - Global Wealth Databook. As a result, the share of world wealth held by the richest 1% increased to 50.1% (from 49% a year earlier). In 2000, their share was 45%.

While the richest 1% of the population owns 50% of the world's wealth, the poorest half of the world's population is content with less than 1% of the world's wealth, or even 0.5% if their net debts are subtracted.

Billionaires are getting richer

Oxfam separately analyzed the wealth dynamics of the world's billionaires from the Forbes list. Last year, the number of billionaires rose by 233, a record increase, to 2,043. Almost 90% are men, notes Oxfam.

The wealth of the billionaires, who appeared in both the March 2017 Forbes ranking and the March 2016 ranking, increased by $762.5 billion (in 2017 dollars), and this would be enough to eliminate poverty on the planet seven times in 2017 year (846 million people living below the poverty line worldwide needed $107 billion to bring their incomes up to the dividing line).

Oxfam points out that the total wealth of billionaires has increased at a rate of 13% per year since 2010 - six times faster than the income of ordinary workers and employees around the planet.

The authors of the report explain that the wealthiest inhabitants of the planet got rich, including due to the deterioration of working conditions for workers and employees. Along with the curtailment of workers' rights, the influence of big business on government decision-making is growing, and payments to major shareholders are also increasing.

“The increase in the number of billionaires does not mean the growth of the economy, but rather the failure of the system. Those who make clothes, assemble telephones, grow food, are exploited to create a continuous flow of cheap goods and increase the profits of large corporations,” said Winnie Byanyima, chief executive of Oxfam.

Video: RBC

At the same time, Byanyima said that both residents of developing countries and workers in the United States are being exploited. In Vietnam, for example, women who work in garment factories go months without seeing their children, and women who work in poultry farms in the United States are forced to come to work in diapers because they are not allowed to go to the toilet during their shifts.

In mid-January 2017, Oxfam, from which it follows that the capitals of the eight richest inhabitants of the planet and 50% of humanity equalized. Now the organization has revised this calculation: in 2016, 61 billionaires owned as much wealth as the poor half of humanity, in 2017 this figure has dropped to 42 billionaires.

Oxfam was founded in 1942 and advocates for people below the poverty line and victims of gender inequality. Every year it publishes reports with proposals to improve the lives of people around the planet.

Social inequality seems to be a relic of the past and should go into oblivion, but the modern reality is such that in one form or another, stratification in society is present today, and this gives rise to a sense of injustice among those people who have been affected by social inequality.

Social inequality - what is it?

Social class inequality has existed since ancient times of human evolution. The history of different countries is a clear proof of what the oppression and enslavement of people leads to - these are rebellions, food riots, wars and revolutions. But this experience, written in blood, teaches nothing. Yes, now it has taken on softer, more veiled forms. What is the expression of social inequality and what does it represent today?

Social inequality is the division or differentiation of people into classes, societies or groups, according to their position in society, which involves unequal use of opportunities, life's benefits and rights. If we imagine social inequality schematically in the form of a ladder, then on its lowest steps there will be the oppressed, the poor, and at the top the oppressors and those who have power and money in their hands. This is the main sign of the stratification of society into the poor and the rich. There are other indicators of social inequality.

Causes of social inequality

What are the causes of social inequality? Economists see the root cause in unequal treatment of property and the distribution of wealth in general. R. Michels (a German sociologist) saw the reason in giving great privileges and powers to the apparatus of power, which was chosen by the people themselves. The reasons for the emergence of social inequality, according to the French sociologist E. Durkheim:

1. Encouragement of people who bring the greatest benefit to society, the best in their field.
2. The unique personal qualities and talents of a person that distinguish him from the general society.

Types of social inequality

Forms of social inequality are different, so there are several classifications. Types of social inequality according to physiological characteristics:

• age - applies to all people in certain age intervals, this can be seen when applying for a job, young people are not hired due to lack of experience, older people with their vast experience are replaced by young people who are more promising from the point of view of their superiors;
• social sexual inequality - here you can consider such a phenomenon as, expressed in the fact that few women occupy responsible positions, participate in the economic life of the country, a woman is assigned the role of "behind her husband";
• social ethnic inequality - small ethnic groups, those that are not included in the concept of "white race" are largely oppressed because of such phenomena as xenophobia and racism.

Social inequality due to status in society:

• lack/presence of wealth;
• proximity to power.

Manifestation of social inequality

The main signs of social inequality are observed in such a phenomenon as the division of labor. Human activities are diverse and each person is endowed with some talents and skills, abilities to grow. In this case, social inequality manifests itself as the giving of privileges to those who are more talented and promising for society. The stratification of society or stratification (from the word "strata" - a geological layer) is the building of a hierarchical ladder, division into classes, and if earlier it was slaves and slave owners, feudal lords and servants, then at the present stage it is a division into:

• top class;
• middle class;
• low-income (socially vulnerable);
• below the poverty line.

Consequences of social inequality

Social inequality and poverty, generated by the fact that only the elite can use the main resources of the planet, gives rise to conflicts and wars among the population. The consequences develop gradually and are expressed in the slow development of many countries, which leads to the fact that progress in the economy is also slowing down, democracy as a system is losing its positions, tension, discontent, psychological pressure and social disharmony are growing in society. According to the UN, half of the world's resources are owned by 1% of the so-called top elite (world domination).

Pros of social inequality

Social inequality in society as a phenomenon does not carry only negative properties, if we consider social inequality from the positive side, then we can note important things, looking at which the thought arises that everything “has a place to be under the Sun”. The advantages of social inequality for a person:

• an incentive to become the best in your field, to show your abilities and talents to the maximum;
• motivation for those who want ;
• ordering in the economic sphere, those who have capital produce resources, in contrast to those who do not have capital and are only able to feed themselves and their families.

Examples of social inequality in history

Examples of social inequality or stratification systems:

1. Slavery- an extreme degree of enslavement, the original form of social inequality known since antiquity.
2. castes. A type of social stratification that has developed since antiquity, when social inequality was determined by caste, a child, being born from birth, belonged to a certain caste. In India, it was believed that the birth of a person in one or another caste depends on his deeds in a past life. There are 4 castes in total: the highest - Brahmins, Kshatriyas - warriors, Vaishyas - merchants, merchants, Shudras - peasants (the lowest caste).
3. Estates. The upper classes - the nobility and the clergy had the legal right to transfer property by inheritance. Unprivileged class - artisans, peasants.

Modern forms of social inequality

Social inequality in modern society is an inherent property, so the social theory of functionalism considers stratification in a positive way. The American sociologist B. Barber divided modern types of social stratification based on 6 criteria:

1. prestige of the profession.
2. The presence of power.
3. Wealth and income.
4. Religious affiliation.
5. Education, knowledge.
6. Belonging to one or another ethnic group, nation.

Social inequality in the world

The problem of social inequality is that racism, xenophobia, and discrimination are generated. The most revealing criterion of social inequality throughout the world is the different income of the population. The factors influencing the stratification in society around the world remain the same as many years ago:

• way of life- urban or rural, a well-known fact that in the villages wages are lower than in the city, and conditions are often worse, and there is more work;
• social roles(mother, father, teacher, official) - determine the status, prestige, the presence of power, property;
• division of labor- physical and intellectual work are paid differently.

According to the statistics of the All-Russian Center for Living Standards (VTsUZ), the level of consumption of the entire Russian population can be divided into four groups:

1) the most numerous - poor. The level of their cash income is below the subsistence level, and poverty is absolute. This means that there is not enough money even for the necessary food. By 2001, the vast majority of the country's citizens were the "poor" population.

2) low-income. Their incomes are approaching the size of the minimum consumer budget, which allows them to "barely make ends meet" and purchase the necessary set of goods and services.

3) secured whose incomes exceed the minimum consumer budget, but have not "grown up" to the budget of people of high income.

4) rich and affluent.

As a result of the financial crisis of 1998, the poor in Russia became much more. If in the summer of 1998 47% of the country's population had an income below the subsistence level, then a year later (in the summer of 1999) they became 56% mainly due to the low-income "and" middle "strata. Even in Moscow, the number of" poor "after August 1998 The number of "wealthy" and "rich" people has practically remained at the same level, and in a number of regions it has even increased.

Thus, not only social, but also economic stratification of the population arose, that is, its stratification by income level.

5% of the richest residents of Russia account for about 70% of all savings placed on its territory. About 26% of savings fall on the middle and high-income strata of the population; poor and low-income groups, accounting for 50% of the population, have only 1.2-1.4% of total savings.

As a result of stratification, new social strata of society emerged. A new social class has taken shape - the class of owners, which can be called the modern Russian bourgeoisie. Among them are large and medium-sized entrepreneurs - owners of enterprises and firms, as a rule, professionally engaged in business. A significant part of the former Soviet-Party nomenklatura (Party, Komsomol workers, responsible employees of Soviet authorities, etc.) also went into business.

The difference in the ratio of income between the richest 10% and the poorest 10% before the reforms (in 1990) was 4.4 times. But already in 1994 - 15.1 times. In 2000, this difference reached 32 times (according to official data from the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation). According to the results of sociological studies, the difference is even greater. Such a gap between wealth and poverty in the world is hard to find. Behind these figures is a clear illustration of social polarization, the concentration of the population at the poles of poverty and wealth.

Another feature of the modern social structure of Russian society is the emergence of a large social group of the unemployed.

At the end of February 1999, the number of unemployed reached an absolute maximum for the entire period of reforms in the 90s: 10.4 million people. By 2001, the unemployment rate in Russia as a percentage of the economically active population was 11.5% (in 1999 - 12.9%), while the officially registered unemployed were 1.5%. The peculiarity of Russian unemployment is its feminine face. The proportion of women among the unemployed in 2000 was 68.2%, and in a number of northern regions - 70-80%.

Remains relevant youth unemployment problem. All these factors in their totality have made the social consequences of unemployment in Russia much larger and more complex than in Western countries.

The country has formed the lumpen layer expands(declassed elements - vagabonds, beggars, etc.). These are people without a specific occupation, without property, permanent residence and income level, who have lost their professional status and are alienated from work, in most cases they have completely lost their labor orientation.

Along with lumpenization, the marginalization Russian society. The phenomenon of marginality arises during migrations. Refugees, migrants, emigrants, settlers are typical representatives of the marginalized layer. Marginal people are also people who have entered into interethnic and interracial marriages.

Thus, one can see that the financial crisis of August 1998 had a very significant and negative impact on the standard of living and the social status of Russia's young "middle class". The exception is, according to sociologists, only about 4% of the representatives of the "middle class", whose "income in foreign currency, according to their own estimates, helped them not to feel any negative consequences of the crisis."

On the whole, as social practice has shown, by the end of 1999 the "middle class" of Russia had adapted to a certain extent to the new crisis conditions and, to a certain extent, was reanimated. Perhaps, with a more thoughtful state and balanced economic policy, the emerging "middle class" will be able to have a positive impact on the social stabilization of society as a whole. But this will take years.

Workshops:

Analysis of legislative acts of the Russian Federation in the field of social policy. (1991-1999) and drawing up a thesis plan - abstract.

Tasks for self-fulfillment - not provided.

Checking the outline plan.

Oral survey.

1. Received by citizens of Russia in the early 1990s. vouchers are:

a) government bonds

b) shares of business owners

c) privatization checks

d) credit cards

2. Privatization of property is:

a) transfer to the state

b) transferring it to private hands

c) transfer to foreign investors

d) sale at European auctions

3. The policy of E. Gaidar includes:

a) price liberalization

b) demonetization

c) creation of the Stabilization Fund

d) maintaining the state monopoly on foreign trade

4. After the resignation of E. Gaidar, the Government was headed by:

a) E.M. Primakov

b) V.V. Putin

c) S.V. Kiriyenko

d) V. S. Chernomyrdin

5. The concepts of "price liberalization", "shock therapy" are associated with the period:

a) Stalin's personality cult

b) restructuring

c) "thaw"

d) early 1990s.

6. One of the reasons for the resignation of the government of E. Gaidar in 1992:

a) dissatisfaction with Gaidar's policy on the part of foreign partners

b) speech by the State Emergency Committee

c) conflict between the government and the president in the struggle for power

d) public dissatisfaction with the consequences of "shock therapy"

7. By the beginning of the 2000s. the largest population group in Russia:

a) low-income

b) the poor

c) wealthy

d) secured

8. People without a certain occupation, without property, permanent residence and income level are:

a) marginals

d) lumpen

9. The privatization of part of state property, which began in Russia in 1992, was carried out in the form of:

a) distribution of the monetary value of property among citizens

b) organization of auction sales of shares

c) distribution among the population of shares of enterprises

d) issuance of privatization checks to citizens of Russia

10. In the late 1990s -2000s. classes were formed in Russia:

a) owners and the middle class

b) oligarchs and hired workers

c) bourgeoisie and peasantry

d) rich and poor

Topic 1.2. Political development of modern Russia

Keywords: constitution, Federal Assembly, Federation Council, majoritarian system, separatism, national projects.

Topic study plan

1. Socio-political development of Russia (1990s). The Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993.

2. Political development of modern Russia (1996-2000s). Activities of B.N. Yeltsin, V.V. Putin, D.A. Medvedev.

1 . The difficulties and costs of economic reforms at the initial stage of Russia's sovereign development sharply intensified the political struggle in the country in the relationship between the executive (Government) and legislative (People's Deputies of the RSFSR) branches of power. The center of opposition to the Government was the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, headed by R.I. Khasbulatov. At the VII Congress of People's Deputies in December 1992, President B.N. Yeltsin was forced, under the influence of a powerful wave of criticism, to dismiss Y. Gaidar and appoint V.S. Chernomyrdin.

But the confrontation continued. The main object of criticism is President B. Yeltsin. A "cold war" began between the President of Russia and the Supreme Soviet, during which Vice President A.V. Rutskoy. In fact, this meant dual power. The struggle over the foundations of the constitutional system went on with varying success until the spring of 1993. On April 25, at the insistence of Yeltsin, a referendum confidence in the President. 58% of those who voted were in favor of trusting the president. Nevertheless, the struggle to remove Yeltsin from power continued after the referendum. The constitutional crisis was not overcome.

Prolonged confrontation between the legislative and executive branches erupted into armed conflict. Yeltsin, in order to end the protracted political dual power, on September 21, 1993, issued Decree No. 1400 "On a phased constitutional reform", in which he announced the dissolution of the Congress and the Supreme Council and the holding on December 12 of a referendum on a new Constitution and elections to the bicameral Federal Assembly (State Duma and Federation Council). Yeltsin declared that the only way to overcome the paralysis of state power is its radical renewal based on the principles of democracy and constitutionality. The Supreme Soviet (SC) of the RSFSR and Vice President A.V. Rutskoy qualified Yeltsin's actions as a coup d'état. Public calls for a peaceful resolution of the conflict through simultaneous elections of the Parliament and the President of the country were not heard by the authorities. The leaders of the "irreconcilable opposition" brought their supporters to the barricades. On the night of September 23, 1993, the emergency X Congress of People's Deputies adopted a resolution that removed Yeltsin from power and qualified his actions as a coup d'état. A. Rutskoi was elected acting president. After that, the confrontation turned into a power plane. Having received authority, Rutskoi created armed formations, weapons and ammunition were brought to the White House.

On October 3, 1993, the opposition organized riots in the center of Moscow on Smolenskaya Square. By 10 pm, armed militants attempted to storm it. In this situation, Yeltsin ordered the introduction of a tank division into Moscow and the blockade of the White House. As a result, there were casualties on both sides, including neither deputies nor leaders of the rebellion. The rebels were arrested. "Black October" destroyed the system of Soviets and Soviet power.

The victory of the presidential country made it possible to reform the political system and adopt a new constitution country. December 12, 1993. There was a popular vote on the adoption of the new Constitution. As a result, it was approved by a majority vote and entered into force. This Constitution drew a line under the Soviet period of history. She introduced in Russia presidential republic, endowed the President with wide powers of authority with the right to appoint the head of government and dissolve the State Duma. She pinned federal form of state, separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial, a variety of types of property, broad rights and freedoms of citizens.

The highest body of legislative power was Federal Assembly, consisting of two chambers: the Federation Council and the State Duma. The Federation Council includes two representatives from the executive and representative branches of power of each of the constituent entities of Russia. The State Duma is elected on the basis of majority system(single-member constituencies) and representation of political parties, movements and organizations that have overcome the 5% barrier of votes.

At the same time, on December 12, 1993, elections to the State Duma and the Federation Council. 13 political parties and movements took part in them. As a result of the elections, 450 deputies were elected. Unlike the former Supreme Soviet, the State Duma was originally created as an exclusively professional parliament. All elected deputies had to work on a permanent basis. According to the Constitution, the jurisdiction of the lower chamber includes the adoption of legislative acts, the approval of the state budget and control over its execution, control over the observance of human rights, and participation in the formation of the Government.

Council of the Federation- The upper house of parliament represents and protects the interests of all subjects of the Federation. Its main function is to consider federal laws passed by the lower house. The composition of the deputies of the State Duma of the first convocation reflected the real balance of forces and moods in Russian society. The Russian parliament of the first convocation fulfilled its main function: it legitimized the new political and state system.

2. December 17, 1995. took place new elections to the State Duma. The elections showed the growing role of the opposition in the political life. 43 political parties and associations have already competed for seats. The elections brought a new alignment of forces: according to the voting results, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation came out on top, the Liberal Democratic Party came in 2nd place, and the Our Home is Russia bloc (headed by V.S. Chernomyrdin) came in 3rd place. The elections showed dissatisfaction with government policy.

The key factor in the political and economic development of Russia in 1996 was presidential elections. The election race was quite tense. Ultimately, B.N. won. Yeltsin. But after his re-election, Yeltsin was unable to accelerate market reforms. The oligarchs began to acquire more and more power in the country. As before, political relations in the Russian Federation remained very sharp. The political struggle between different political forces continued. For the period 1995 - 1999. was typical frequent change of governments who had to deal with complex economic and social problems. In 1997 - 1998 the strike movement reached a large scale.

The threat of the collapse of the Russian Federation increased. This led to the growth of separatism among the leaders of the national republics. In many republics, strengthening separatism accompanied by increased oppression of Russians. A particularly dangerous situation has developed in the North Caucasus. The Chechen Republic has become a source of crime throughout Russia. An attempt to restore constitutional law and order led to the war in Chechnya in 1995-1996. Between President Yeltsin and the State Duma of 1995-1999 convocation. confrontation arose again. In May 1999, the communists tried to remove Yeltsin from power, but did not get the required number of votes. The President himself carried out a number of resignations and appointments. On August 9, 1999, he was appointed Prime Minister V.V. Putin. He took responsibility for the second Chechen campaign. The success and decisiveness of the fighting led to an increase in his popularity. On December 31, 1999, Yeltsin voluntarily resigned, transferring his powers to Prime Minister Putin. The Yeltsin era is over.

On March 26, 2000, in the presidential election, Putin won in the first round, receiving 52.94% of the vote. Election results 1999 - 2000 changed the situation in Russia in many ways. There was a pro-presidential majority in the Duma. The government continued to carry out reforms. It was recognized that the key to their success is the presence of a strong state power. 7 federal districts were created, to which plenipotentiaries of the President were appointed. V.V. Putin follows the line of strengthening the "vertical of power". The legislation of the republics, territories and regions is being brought into line with federal laws. A new procedure for the formation of the Federation Council has been established: it now consists not of heads, but of representatives of the regions. The law on parties was adopted. The approval by the Duma in December 2000 of the emblem, anthem, and flag of Russia was intended to consolidate society. The population supported Putin's policy. The pro-presidential United Russia party won the 2003 parliamentary elections. IN March 2004. Putin second time was elected President of the Russian Federation. 71.31% of voters voted for him.

Tax, judicial, pension, military reforms were carried out. Administrative reform began in 2004, and political reform continued. At Putin's suggestion, direct elections of governors by the population were abolished. Their candidacies began to be introduced by the President and approved by the legislative assembly of the regions. To ensure the interaction of citizens with government bodies, protect rights and freedoms, in order to control the activities of government bodies, a Public Chamber.

At the beginning of the XXI century. continued growth of the Russian economy. Advances in the economy made it possible to adopt in 2005-2006. at the initiative of the President national projects(“Education”, “Health”, etc.). Putin's second presidential term (2004-2008) characterized by continued economic growth, strengthening of stability in society, increasing authority Russia in the international arena. In his next Address to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation in April 2005, Putin defined it as the main political and ideological task of Russia as a free democratic state. To achieve it, the President proposed a number of measures to develop the state, strengthen the rule of law and improve the efficiency of justice.

2nd of March 2008. won the next presidential election YES. Medvedev(70.28% of the vote), supported by V.V. Putin and the United Russia majority party. Putin gave his consent to the President of the Russian Federation to work as head of the Government (since May 8, 2008). This testifies to the continuity of the political course, which is important in the context of the economic crisis that has affected Russia and the world community.

Workshops:

Working with textual, legislative, video material that reveals national politics and interethnic relations in modern Russia, and preparing a thesis summary.

Selection of material for the debate, preparation of the report "Modern problems of interethnic relations in the world."

Form of control of independent work:

oral questioning .

Checking the abstract .

Report protection.

Questions for self-control on the topic:

1. The current Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted in:

2. The modern constitution was adopted on:

a) a referendum

b) a closed meeting of the Central Committee of the party

c) XXVIII Congress of the CPSU

d) X Congress of People's Deputies

3. The appearance of this state body is associated with the adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:

a) Congress of People's Deputies

b) All-Russian Central Executive Committee

c) the Supreme Council

d) Federation Council

4. The post of Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation in the 1990s. occupied:

a) N.I. Ryzhkov

b) A.N. Kosygin

c) G.A. Yavlinsky

d) V.S. Chernomyrdin

5. The State Duma in 1993 is elected on the basis of:

a) mixed system

b) proportional system

c) majority system

d) appointments of the President of the Russian Federation

a) State Duma

b) Federation Council

c) State Council

d) the Supreme Council

7. V.V. Putin first took the post of President of the Russian Federation in:

8. The political line of Putin, proclaimed at the beginning of his presidency, includes:

a) acceleration course

b) expanding the powers of local legislatures

c) strengthening the “vertical of power”

d) the development of a multi-party system in the Russian Federation

9. Putin's second presidential term fell on the period:

a) 2000 - 2004

b) 2008 – 2012

c) 2006 - 2010

d) 2004 - 2008

10. State symbols of Russia were approved by the State Duma in:

Topic 1.3. Cultural development of modern Russia

Basic concepts and terms on the topic Keywords: culture, westernization of culture, modernization of the education system, USE.

Topic study plan(list of questions to be studied):

1. Cultural development of modern Russia. General characteristics and development trends.

2. The modern system of education in Russia and its prospects. Achievements of modern Russian science and scientific and technological revolution.

Brief summary of theoretical issues:

1 . Cultural processes do not disappear with the collapse of states and political regimes. The collapse of the USSR activated the processes that took place in the culture and spiritual life of the existence of the Soviet state. Early 1990s took place under the sign of the accelerated disintegration of the unified culture of the USSR into separate national cultures, which not only rejected the values ​​of the common culture of the USSR, but also the cultural traditions of each other. Such a sharp opposition of different national cultures led to an increase in social and cultural tension, to the emergence of conflicts and caused the further disintegration of a single socio-cultural space.

The relationship between power and culture has changed. There was no party-state diktat, the unified system of managing culture has disappeared, and many processes are now developing autonomously. At the same time, the state in post-Soviet Russia retained the functions of a “regulator” of cultural processes, support of the education and science system, and ensuring the accessibility of educational and cultural institutions. But the funds for this were sorely lacking, which leads to commercialization and Westernization culture - the penetration of alien components of Western mass culture.

Social decay and moral degradation directly affected the state of spiritual life. In the course of contradictory modernization, society changes so rapidly that culture cannot keep up with these changes. Over 80% of the population lives in cities, but these are often first-generation city dwellers. The increasing marginalization of the population led to the fact that the marginal system of values ​​spread to a wide circle.

By relying on material instruments in the management of society, the state made a mistake. Moral norms and moral values ​​less and less began to determine personal, business, political relations in society. Unlimited rights to power were given to money and power, regardless of their origin. But neither money nor force is effective in governing society.

The modern culture of society is a semi-traditional, semi-Lumpen culture. The main problem that worries Russians is the change in the nature of relationships between people. Immorality is found in obscene language. It has received, unfortunately, the widest distribution among the vast masses of the population and has given rise to a corresponding outlook on life. In modern Russia, foul language has become a real disaster. A sharp rejection of many causes the use of profanity in literature, on television, on the stage, etc.

In artistic culture, the unified principle of socialist realism has been replaced by stylistic and genre diversity, where no single style is dominant. The artist reserves the right to choose. An important criterion for success is the recognition of a wide audience, the ability to attract its attention and earn approval. Financial success is identified with cultural success, and this leads to pragmatism and utilitarianism. What is declared cultural is that which is economically profitable. There is a dehumanization of culture, culture loses the right to assert the inherent value of a person, personality, life. A simplified, primitive cultural ideal is being created.

2. In 1992, the Law of the Russian Federation “On Education” was adopted, which consolidated its humanistic principles. The network of educational institutions has become diverse, there are gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges, private schools. But due to lack of funding, many schools drag out a miserable existence. After the collapse of the USSR, child homelessness increased sharply in the country.

Since 2000, a new educational reform, named "modernization of the education system". It provides for a transition to 12-year education in secondary school, the introduction of the Unified State Examination for graduates, the results of which are enrolled in universities.

The system of higher education in the country is developing, especially its paid forms. There are non-state universities on a commercial basis in the country. One of the main problems now is the quality of educational services.

Russian science remains in a difficult position, because state funding has been sharply reduced, salaries of specialists are quite low. Many talented scientists are not in demand at home. Grants support science a little. Of the outstanding events, the award of the Nobel Prize in Physics to Russian scientists Zh.I. Alferov (2000), A.A. Abrikosov and V.L. Ginzburg (2003).

Of all the spheres of culture, they successfully fit into the market seal And book business.

The shortage of paper was eliminated, which made it possible to fill the shelves with a wide variety of book products. The absence of censorship also contributes to the development of the media. It cannot be said that this is always positive. The media use advertising space for their activities. In 1994, the first non-state NTV channel began to operate.

Literature is characterized by a variety of genres. But predominantly postmodernism. Until the 1990s were written "Moscow - Petushki" by V. Erofeev, "School of Fools" by S. Sokolov. Of the modern Russian writers, one can name V. Pelevin, Yu. Buyd, V. Pietsukha and others. The realist writers V. Astafyev “Cursed and Killed”, B. Vasiliev “The Wilderness”, G. Baklanov “The Own Man” worked successfully. Major historical and documentary studies were "Red Sun", "Two Hundred Years Together" by A.I. Solzhenitsyn.

Difficult times experienced domestic cinema. Reduction of state support, underfunding almost destroyed the Russian cinema. The domestic film market was flooded with Western (mainly the United States) low-quality film production. Since the second half of the 1990s. the situation began to change slightly. The production of domestic feature films is being established, various festivals are being held, the Moscow International Film Festival has become an annual event. Notable film festivals are held in Sochi and Vyborg. The audience showed the greatest interest in the films of N. Mikhalkov "The Barber of Siberia" (1999), S. Druzhinina "Secrets of Palace Revolutions" (2000 - 2003), A. Kott "Brest Fortress" (2010).

The development of cultural processes in modern Russia has a contradictory character: on the one hand, this is the presence of complete freedom of expression among the creative intelligentsia, on the other hand, the difficult conditions of existence in market conditions with insufficient financial assistance from the state.

The sphere of education and science continues to be predominantly depressed. School teachers, teachers of higher education institutions, universities from a respected group of the population, which they were in Soviet times, are moving into the category of poor state employees. This is an extremely dangerous trend, because it is these people who are raising the intellectual potential of our state. The process of "brain drain", which actively began in Gorbachev's perestroika, is acquiring catastrophic proportions. Many teachers who are at an active age leave their jobs in the educational field and are forced to look for earnings on the side. Such a situation should be in the center of attention of the state, because. requires urgent permission.

Workshops:

Work with textual material, Internet resources that reveal the content of the media and their influence on the cultural development of modern youth, their problems, the design of a supporting abstract

Tasks for self-fulfillment:

Drawing up a detailed plan on the topic "Media and youth culture"

Form of control of independent work:

Oral survey.

Checking the basic abstract, plan.

Questions for self-control on the topic:

1. Culture is:

a) exclusively the level of technical development of society

b) the totality of all the achievements of mankind

c) the level of education of certain segments of the population

d) the level of literacy of the population

2. In the late 1990s - early 2000s. successfully entered the market:

a) cinema and theater

b) printing and book business

c) circus and stage

d) ballet and opera

3. In the literature of the 1990s. prevailed:

a) realism

b) sentimentalism

c) postmodernism

d) modernism

4. The penetration of alien components of mass Western culture into the domestic one is called:

a) internationalization

b) globalization

c) westernization

d) integration

5. Modernization of the education system provides for:

a) return to 10 years of education and the abolition of oral examinations

b) transition to 11-year education, the abolition of the Unified State Examination

c) transition to paid education at school

d) transition to 12-year education in secondary school, introduction of the Unified State Examination

6. On the state of spiritual life in the 1990s. in Russia influenced by:

a) the economic growth of the country

b) large financial assistance from the West

c) new state ideology

d) social decay and moral degradation

7. To the features of the development of science at the turn of the XX - XXI centuries. can be attributed:

a) desire for more discoveries

b) the use of microprocessor technologies in research

c) conducting virtual scientific experiments

d) expanding knowledge about the world around us

8. The first non-state channel began to work in the Russian Federation in:

9. Winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics in the 2000s. become:

a) M. Keldysh, L. Kantorovich

b) P. Kapitsa, S. Korolev

c) I. Bunin, I. Brodsky

d) Zh. Alferov, A. Abrikosov, V. Ginzburg

10. In modern Russia, there is a process:

a) influx of foreign specialists

b) dehumanization of science

c) brain drain

d) computerization of culture

Topic 1.4. Foreign policy development of modern Russia

Basic concepts and terms on the topic Keywords: geopolitics, bipolar foreign policy, multipolar foreign policy, global problems.

Topic study plan(list of questions to be studied):

1. Foreign policy development of modern Russia. Expansion of relations with key regions of the world.

2. Russia and global problems of our time.

Brief summary of theoretical issues:

1 . The role and place of Russia in the modern world is largely determined by its geopolitical position, i.e. location, power and balance of power in the world system of states. One of the most important components of the geopolitical position is the ability to control key spaces and geographic points around the world. After the collapse of the USSR and the creation of the CIS, there was a fundamentally new foreign policy situation. The Russian Federation received international recognition as the successor to the USSR in foreign policy. The country confirmed the continuity with respect to agreements and arrangements on arms control and the solution of global problems. But the state faced serious geopolitical shifts, temporary disorganization in determining the main enemy in the international arena, a regrouping of forces, a change in political regimes, and the emergence of new states.

The main task of Russia's foreign policy- revival and strengthening of its international positions. The "Basic provisions of the concept of foreign policy of the Russian Federation" were developed. The priority directions of foreign policy were:

§ creation of a new system of relations with former socialist countries;

§ entry into the European and world community;

§ development of new principles of interstate relations with the former republics of the USSR;

§ activation of relations with China;

§ countries of Southeast Asia;

§ equal development of relations with the USA;

§ participation in peacekeeping actions to prevent armed conflicts.

The foreign policy of the Russian Federation in the post-Soviet period is characterized by the following features:

1. change of paradigms in world politics in connection with the end of the Cold War, the collapse of the USSR and the socialist system;

2. transition from a bipolar system of international relations to a multipolar and multi-vector foreign policy;

3. the emergence of a new direction in foreign policy - relations with the CIS countries.

The main directions of the country's foreign policy are:

1. problems of European security (Russia and NATO);

2. Russian-American relations;

3. Russia and CIS countries;

4. relationship with the states of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Security on the European continent, NATO's approach to the Russian states has become a priority in Russia's foreign policy. IN 1996. Russia entered into Council of Europe. Relations with NATO were normalized. In 2002, the Declaration "Russia-NATO Relations: A New Quality" was signed.

In 1997, at a meeting in Denver (USA), Russia's entry into the Paris and London clubs of creditors was approved. Russia finally entered the G8 in 1998.

An important place was occupied by Russian-American relations. In 1993, an agreement was concluded on the reduction of strategic offensive arms (OSNV-2). Relations with the United States continue to develop dynamically. President Putin was one of the first to express support for the United States in the fight against international terrorism after the attack on American cities in September 2001.

In 2000, in Moscow, President V. Putin approved new concept of Russian foreign policy which proceeded from the multipolar system of international relations, which really reflects the diversity of the modern world with the diversity of its interests. The place of Russia was defined as great Eurasian power responsible for maintaining security in the world, both globally and regionally.

In September 2003, the Presidents of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan signed a framework agreement on the creation of a single economic space zone. Russia continues to play a leading role in the post-Soviet space. Mutually beneficial relations are developing with Asian, African and Latin American states.

Speaking with the Address to the Federal Assembly on April 26, 2007, President of the Russian Federation V. Putin noted that "our foreign policy is aimed at joint, pragmatic and non-ideological work to solve problems that are urgent for us."

More and more states are shifting the focus of cooperation from the military to the financial and economic fields. Russia is firmly integrated into the modern global world. Russia strives for a lasting peace, the establishment of partnership relations with all countries, inclusion in the orbit of world economic ties on an equal footing.

2 . Russia is firmly integrated into the modern global world. The end of the XX - the beginning of the XXI centuries. brought new challenges and threats to the country's security. With the end of the Cold War, the problems of nuclear proliferation and international terrorism began to come to the fore. In the conditions of a deep aggravation of the international situation, Russia actively participated in the development of a new system of agreements, in the creation of a new balance of power, so that the aggravation of the international situation would not lead to chaos or war against all, or to the hegemony of one power. Russia's goals in the international arena extremely simple: the security of borders and the creation of external favorable conditions for solving internal Russian problems.

International terrorism, which made itself known by the seizure of a school in Beslan on September 1, 2004, as a result of which, according to official data, 330 people died. and more than 1,300 were affected, led the world powers to dismiss the idea of ​​nuclear disarmament as Cold War "romanticism".

After September 11, 2001, the US stepped up its policy in the post-Soviet space. The main goal of the United States proclaimed the fight against terrorism. American troops and bases appeared in Central Asia. Reacting to the newly arisen circumstances, Russia tried to build in 2003-2004. with its neighbors in the CIS a new model of relations, incl. and in the conflict zones of the South - Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Russia is making great efforts to reduce the level of international tension and to help extinguish the hotbeds of tension in the Caucasus. Our country strives to play an active role in the fight against international terrorism, in solving the problems facing the world community. In February 2007, at an international conference on security issues, the President of the Russian Federation emphasized the responsibility of Russia, together with other countries, for building a new world order based on justice and respect for law as universally recognized democratic standards of the world order. Russia takes part in peacekeeping actions to solve global problems, incl. ecological, demographic, educational, etc.

In its international policy, Russia strives for a lasting peace, the establishment of partnership relations with all countries, inclusion in the orbit of world economic ties on an equal and non-discriminatory basis.

Workshops:

Consideration of documents, doctrines, revealing the interaction of Russia with the international community in solving global problems of our time and drawing up a comparative and generalizing table "International Organizations and Global Problems".

Tasks for self-fulfillment:

Compilation of the table "Foreign policy of Russia 1990 - 2000 - s."

Form of control of independent work:

Oral survey.

Checking tables.

Questions for self-control on the topic:

1. The main task of Russia's foreign policy after the collapse of the USSR:

a) military buildup

b) complete disarmament

c) increased funding for the army

d) the revival and strengthening of the international positions of the Russian Federation

2. Russia joined the Council of Europe in:

3. The new concept of Russia's foreign policy is based on:

a) the bipolarity of the world

b) the multipolarity of the world

c) the monopolarity of the world

d) the exclusive role of the United States

4. In the first place in foreign policy for Russia are:

a) problems of European security

b) relationship with Africa

c) relations with Latin America

d) relations with China

5. The 2000 Foreign Policy Concept defined Russia as:

a) the largest European power

b) a great European power

c) a great military power

d) the largest information power

6. Russia entered the "eight" of the largest powers in:

7. Monopolar world in the 1990s assumed dominance.

a) Russia

8. The suspension of the US and Russian disarmament process was influenced by:

a) events in the Middle East

b) events in the Persian Gulf

c) US takeover of Iraq

9. The main goal of the United States since 2001:

a) complete disarmament

b) fight against international terrorism

c) participation in all humanitarian actions

d) creation of new military bases in Latin America

10. Currently, Russia's foreign policy relies on:

a) nuclear weapons

b) policy of intimidation

c) building your own security system

d) universally recognized democratic standards of the world order

Skills formed by the student after studying section 1:

1. Names the dates of the most important events, turning points in modern Russian history.

2. Indicates the sequence of events within a particular period.

3. Names the place, circumstances, participants, results of the most important historical events.

4. Searches for the necessary information in one or more sources (when working with documents and other historical materials).

5. Tells (orally, in writing) about historical events, their participants.

6. Reveals the relationship of domestic, regional, global socio-economic, political and cultural problems.

7. Systematizes historical material: draws up tables, draws up notes.

8. Systematizes historical material: draws up tables, draws up notes.

9. Explains the meaning and significance of the most important historical concepts.

10. Gives assessments of historical events, set out in educational and additional literature.

11. Expresses and argues (explains) his attitude to events and personalities.

Section 2. Modern world.

Topic 2.1. Economic development of the leading states of the world. European countries and USA.

Basic concepts and terms on the topic Key words: reconversion, CMEA, "Marshall Plan", global economic crisis, "velvet revolutions", "shock therapy", decoupling theory.

Topic study plan(list of questions to be studied):

1. Economic development of the leading states of the world. Countries of Western and Eastern Europe, USA.

2. Russia and the global crisis. The global financial crisis of 2008 and the search for ways out of it.

Brief summary of theoretical issues:

1 . After the end of the Second World War, which caused enormous damage to countries, the leading countries of Western Europe and the United States faced the task of reconversion- transferring the economy to a peaceful track. It was a common problem for everyone, but it had national specifics. The United States is the only leading country in the world that has been able to cash in on the war. On the territory of this state was 75% of the world's gold reserves. The dollar became the main currency of the Western world. In Western Europe the situation was different. Western European countries can be roughly divided into three groups: 1) England, ground battles were not fought on its territory; 2) Germany: temporarily lost its sovereignty, suffered from hostilities; 3) other states- participants in the war. The total losses of England exceeded a quarter of all national wealth. In the world market of England, the United States pressed. In Germany, the economy was close to collapse: industrial production did not reach 30% of the pre-war level. The population is demoralized. France suffered greatly from the occupation. There was a shortage of fuel, raw materials, food in the country, the financial system was in crisis.

From this initial situation began the process of post-war reconstruction. Two approaches have been identified: 1) in France, England, Austria government regulation model. A number of industries and banks were nationalized. The gas and electric power industries, transport, railways, and some airlines have been transferred to state ownership. A large public sector was formed as a result of nationalization in France. 2) In the US, the problem of reconversion was solved differently. The emphasis was on private property relations. The state intervened in regulation through taxes and credit.

Priority attention in the United States and Western Europe began to be given to labor relations. But they looked at this problem differently. In the United States, the Taft-Hartley Act was adopted: it introduced strict state control over trade unions. The state took the path of expanding and strengthening the social infrastructure. The key has become fair course program» 1948, put forward by G. Truman. It provided for an increase in the minimum wage, the introduction of health insurance, the construction of inexpensive housing, and so on. Similar events were carried out by the Labor government of C. Attlee in England. Progress in the social sphere was also evident in other Western European countries. The result is a significant increase in government spending on social insurance, science, education, and vocational training.

Practically all political parties in Western Europe adopted the ideology and practice of reformism. This was enshrined in the constitutions of the new generation of France, Italy, and partly the GDR. State regulation after the war is the main factor in the development of the Western European economy. This made it possible to sufficiently overcome the difficulties faced by Western civilization.

1960 - years. - a time of violent upheavals, the peak of liberal reformism. It was at this time that the rapid development of the scientific and technical sphere, the introduction of the latest technologies took place. In all developed countries, the proportion of the population employed in the agricultural sector is declining. The movement of villagers to the cities caused a sharp expansion of the service sector. The emergence of new forms of organization of production contributed to the scientific and technological revolution. The economies of the Western countries were on the upswing. This was a strong impetus "Marshall Plan", according to which 16 European states received from the US government in 1948-1951. 13 billion dollars An important indicator of economic progress is an increase in production volume. But, despite the favorable economic climate, intensive liberal legislation in the social sphere, the countries could not avoid socio-political upheavals. USA in the 1960s faced a wide range of mass democratic movements: Negro, youth. The "rebellion of the young" caused considerable concern among American society. The youth acted under the slogans of rejecting traditional values.

France in the 1950s-1960s experienced a number of socio-political upheavals. In 1958 - events in Algeria. In autumn 1959 a new constitution was adopted; From a parliamentary republic, the country turned into a presidential one. Power is concentrated in the hands of Charles de Gaulle. In 1962, Algeria gained independence. During the years of de Gaulle's reign, large funds were allocated for the modernization and development of industry, as well as agriculture. The system of social insurance is expanding. But, despite this, in 1968 an acute crisis erupted in France, the root cause was the performance of radical students. By 1969 there was a turning point in favor of the authorities.

The impetus to the "conservative wave" was given by the crisis of 1974-1975. It coincided with a surge in inflation, an energy crisis. The main branches of European industry fell into decline. There is a growing distrust of the dollar in the Western community. Economic problems in the 1970s occurred against the backdrop of NTR. Its main manifestation is the mass computerization of production. The processes of internationalization of the economy have accelerated.

The process of transformation of the economy was accompanied by a number of social difficulties: an increase in unemployment, rising prices. In the mid 1970s. Criticism of Keynesianism acquires a frontal character. A new conservative concept of economic regulation is gradually taking shape. Its prominent representatives were M. Thatcher, R. Reagan. The neoconservatives were guided ideas of "free market" and "supply theory". In the social sphere, a bet has been made on reducing government spending. All able-bodied citizens had to provide for themselves. The second component of the economic course of the conservatives is the formula "the state for the market." The market system is capable of self-regulation through competition with minimal state intervention in the reproduction process.

Neo-conservative recipes quickly gained wide popularity among the ruling elite of the leading countries of Europe and the USA. The set of measures was as follows: reduction of taxes on corporations while increasing indirect taxes; curtailment of a number of social programs; a wide sale of state property (re-privatization); closure of unprofitable enterprises.

IN USA the revision of socio-economic policy took place after Republican R. Reagan came to power. During his reign, a law on the improvement of the economy was passed. Instead of a progressive system of taxation, a new scale was introduced, close to proportional taxation. At the same time, the state cut social spending. The results of "Reaganomics" can be reflected in the wording: "The rich have become richer, the poor - poorer."

IN England the decisive offensive of the neoconservatives is associated with the name of M. Thatcher. It declared the fight against inflation to be its main goal. Price controls were abolished and restrictions on the movement of capital lifted. State sector subsidies are sharply reduced, and since 1980 their sale has begun. In the social sphere, Thatcher led a severe attack on the trade unions. Representatives of trade unions were excluded from participation in the activities of advisory government commissions on problems of socio-economic policy. The problem of Northern Ireland was difficult for the government. The "Iron Lady" was a supporter of the forceful version of her solution. The combination of these factors somewhat weakened the position of the ruling party, but in 1987 they again won. Second half of the 80s. was one of the most favorable eras in English history: the economy was on the rise, the standard of living of the population increased. In the fall of 1990, Thatcher retired from big politics.

Similar processes took place in the 1980s. in most Western countries. France was an exception to some, here the key positions belonged to the socialists, led by F. Mitterrand. But the influence of the left was dwindling. In 1995, J. Chirac became president. In 2007 he was replaced by N. Sarkozy.

By the beginning of the 1990s. The “conservative wave” gradually began to decline. It happened in a mild way. R. Reagan was replaced in 1989 by D. Bush, Sr., in 1992, B. Clinton occupied the White House, and in 2001, D. Bush, Jr. came to power. In England, Thatcher was replaced by the conservative D. Major, in 1997 - by the Labor leader E. Blair. But this did not mean a change in the internal political course of England. Approximately the same developments took place in other Western European countries. The last representative of the "neo-conservative wave" German Chancellor H. Kohl in September 1998 cedes his post to the Social Democrat H. Schroeder. Strengthening problems in the economy at the beginning of the XXI century. angered the social democrats. In the 2006 elections, the Christian Democrats won a small majority. A “grand coalition” government (CDU and SPD) headed by A. Merkel was formed.

In general, the 1990s - a time of relative calm in the socio-political development of the leading Western countries.

Post-war development of Eastern Europe different from Western European and American. During the Second World War in the countries of Eastern Europe, the authority of the left forces, primarily the communists, increased significantly. In a number of states they led anti-fascist uprisings (Bulgaria, Romania). In 1945-1946. new constitutions were adopted, monarchies were liquidated, power passed to people's governments, large enterprises were nationalized. Communists in parliaments have taken strong positions. They called for radical change. The communists were strongly supported by the presence of Soviet troops in the Eastern European countries. In the conditions of the "cold war" they staked on the acceleration of transformations. The USSR provided these countries with huge material assistance.

With the formation of the countries of "people's democracy", the process of formation of world socialist system. Economic relations between the USSR and these countries were carried out in the form of a bilateral foreign trade agreement. At the same time, the USSR tightly controlled the activities of the governments of these countries.

Since 1947, control has been exercised by the heir to the Comintern - Cominform. In 1949, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was established ( CMEA). As part of Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Albania later joined. CMEA is a kind of response to the creation of NATO. The goals of the CMEA are to unite and coordinate efforts in the development of the economy of the member countries of the Commonwealth.

In the political field, the Warsaw Pact played an important role ( ATS), established in 1955. Its participants were supposed to provide immediate assistance to the attacked states in the event of an armed attack.

By the mid 1950s. as a result of accelerated industrialization in the countries of Central, South-Eastern Europe, a significant economic potential was created. Stalin's death in 1953 gave hope for political change. But the USSR suppressed all attempts of countries to go their own way. After the 20th Congress of the CPSU (1956), the new course was by no means implemented everywhere. Performances in Hungary were suppressed. In the mid 1960s. the situation in Czechoslovakia worsened. In 1968, an attempt by Czechoslovakia to go its own way was suppressed.

At the turn of the 1970s - 1980s. crises emerged in Poland. The policy of perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in the countries of Eastern Europe. Soviet leadership by the end of the 1980s. abandoned the policy of maintaining the existing regimes in these countries. But reform attempts often ended in failure. The flight of the population to the West acquired a massive character. In 1990, the GDR and the FRG unified.

In most countries, the communists were removed from power. Elections were soon held, the former oppositionists won. These events are called "velvet revolutions". After political changes in all Eastern European countries, transformations began in the economy and other areas. They abandoned the planned economy, the command-administrative system, privatization is being carried out. The first transformations are called "shock therapy". Social stratification intensifies, crime and corruption grew.

By the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries. the situation in most countries has stabilized. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were gradually restored. In foreign policy, all Eastern European countries are guided by the West, most of them have joined NATO and the EU. The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties.

2. The main characteristic of 2008, which guarantees it a special place in world and Russian economic history, is rapidity deployment of economic crisis. In just a few months, in Russia, as well as in a number of other leading emerging markets, confidence in an economic miracle has been replaced by the expectation of an economic collapse.

The financial crisis in the West was pushing interest rates down, and it seemed that another powerful long-term growth driver had been added to the persistently high energy prices. One of the favorite activities of the Russian political elite was the discussion of the country's prospects for 2020 and what place in terms of GDP will Russia take by that time in the world - fifth or sixth? In connection with the spread of the crisis to European countries while maintaining high growth rates in China, India and Russia, decoupling theory. In accordance with it, emerging markets were supposed to act as the “engine” that would stop the crisis and lead developed countries out of the onset of recession. In August-September 2008, it became clear that the financial crisis is developing into an economic and global one, that is, it covers all the major economies of the world, both developed and developing.

It cannot be said that the crisis came unexpectedly. At the beginning of 2008, one could observe the instability of the two main factors of Russian economic growth: high energy prices and the availability of cheap money in the world financial markets. Among the most important sources of the crisis are the onset of a global recession, falling prices for oil and other Russian exports, the emergence of a balance of payments deficit and the country's increased dependence on foreign investment, the rapidly growing external debt of Russian companies and the high probability of not paying off their debts without government assistance. It is also important that a generation of politicians has grown up in Russia over eight prosperous years, accustomed to “managing the growth of prosperity” and having no experience of crisis management; a sense of confidence in the future spread more and more among citizens. Pessimistic forecasts came true in Russia. The most severe scenario was realized: at the same time, two main sources of growth of the Russian economy were exhausted - prices for the main products of Russian exports fell and cheap financial resources disappeared on the world market. The crisis has come.

The unfolding crisis goes beyond the usual cyclical one. Three important features can be distinguished.

First. The crisis, which began in the context of globalization, is of an unprecedented scale, covering almost all dynamically developing countries and regions. And it has a stronger effect on those who have been most successful in the last decade; on the contrary, stagnant countries and regions suffered from it to a lesser extent.

Second. The current crisis is structural in nature, that is, it involves a major renewal of the structure of the world economy and its technological base.

Third. The crisis is innovative. In recent years, much has been said about the importance of innovation, the transfer of the economy to an innovative development path; This is exactly what happened in the financial and economic sphere. Financial innovations arose and quickly spread here - new instruments of the financial market, which, as it seemed then, could create conditions for endless growth.

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